Synchronic approach

Synchronically polysemy is

1. T coexistence of various Ms of T same W at a certain historical period of T development of T Eng L

2. T arrangement of these Ms in T semantic structure of a W

1. T order in which Ms are enumerated in the dictionary is not arbitrary

T 1^st M is basic/central, all other Ms are minor/margina l in comparison

ý table – a piece of furniture

Minor Ms are only observed in certain contexts ý to keep T table amused

2. T frequency of occurrence in speech of individual Ms is an objective criterion of their value

ý table – a piece of furniture – possesses T highest frequency value

3.! T stylistic stratification of Ms of a polisemantic W – they may differ in their stylistic reference

ý yellow ‘colour’ – neuteral; ‘sensational’ – both slang & American

Stylistically neuteral Ms are more frequent

diachronic approach

Diachronically polysemy is a hystorical change in T semantic structure of T W resulting in

1. disappearance of some Ms or/& in new Ms being added to T ones already existing

2. T rearrangement of these Ms in its semantic structure

A W may retain its previous M(s) & at T same time acquire one or several new ones

Primary; secondary M – derived from T primary & appeared later than T primary

ý table ‘a flat slab(плита) of stone of wood’ – primary M

Derived» secondary

T main source of polysemy is a change in T semantic structure of a W

Polysemy may also arise from homonimy

ý T human ear & T ear of T corn – homonyms from T diachronic p of view

L auris L acus, aceris

Synchronically – they are two Ms of T same W

Some of old Ms may become obsolete(устарелый) or even disappear, but T bulk of Eng Ws tend to an increase in number of Ms

As T semantic structure is never static T relationship betw T diachronic & synchronic evaluation of T individual Ms of T same W may be dif in dif periods of T historical development of L

34. What is a paradigm? Paradigmatic & syntgmatic approaches to T study of M.

Paradigm – Relations of a W with other Ws in a subgroup in a L

Though forms change T M remains T same

ý He got a letter/ he obtained/He received a letter

An item in a sentence can be substituted by one or more other items that have identical part-of-speech M & similar lexical M

Closed & open sets of lexical items

Closed systems – T sets of items in which T choice is limited to a finite number of alternatives -Personal pronouns I you she he we...

Studied by grammar

Open systems –sets in which T number of alternatives is practically infinite – lexico-semantic fields, hyponymic, synonymic sets

Studied by lexicology

Syntagmatic relations – define T M T W possesses when it is used in combination with other Ws in T flow of speech (T company T W keeps)

M is discerned by T context. Linguistic (verbal) contexts ü1. lexical ü2. grammatical are opposed to extralinguistic (non-verbal) contexts – actual speech situation in which T W is used

ý рука arm/hand

He got a letter/got tired/got to London

S y n t a g m a t i c relations - horisontal paradigmatic – vertical presentation

---------------------------------------®

He got a letter

I received a note

She obtained an epistle...

33. Semantic contrasts & antonymy

Antonyms – Ws dif in sound form characterized by dif types of semantic contrast of T denotational M & interchangeable at least in some contexts

Perfect or complete synonyms are rare

Kind vs cruel – completely opposed to each other

Kind vs unkind (not necessarily cruel)– there is no polarity of M as here semantic opposition is confined to simple negation

Types of Antonyms

1. contradictories – to use one of T terms is to contradict T other = + not (+admit of no possibility betw them)

ý dead-alive(not dead), single-married, perfect-imperfect

+ a subgroup – Ws which don’t represent absolute values –to use one of T terms is to imply comparison with some norm – ‘young’-relatively young

ý young-old, big-small

T! one member of each pair can function as T unmarked or generic term for T common quality involved in both members: age, size ý the old

2. contraries – admit of possibilities (intermediate members betw them)

ý cold -cool-warm- hot

3. incompatibles – antonyms with T common component of M- T reverse of hyponymy

ý morning-afternoon-evening-night + colour terms: red-black-blue...

! red-scarlet hyponymy!!!

T negation of one member of this set doesn’t imply T semantic equivalence with T other but excludes T possibility of T other Ws of this set

Interchangeability in certain contexts is typical of antonyms as well as of synonyms

ý a wet short – a dry shirt

Antonyms are not necessarily interchangeable in all contexts

ý dry-damp-wet-moist dry air-damp air; dry lips-moist lips

32. Semantic equivalence & synonymy. Types of synonyms. Sources of synonyms.

Synonyms – Ws different in their sound-form, but similarT in their denotational M or Ms & interchangeableu at least in some contexts.

Synonymy is often understood as semantic equivalence. Sem Eq however may exist betw Ws, Wgroups & sentences

ý John is taller than Bill=Bill is shorter than John; to win a victory=to gain a victory

John sold T book to Bill=Bill bought T book from Bill

Þsynonyms – semantic relations betw Ws only

Semantic equivalence – similar relations betw Wgroups & sentences

Synonyms are found in dif parts of speech, both among notional & function Ws

ý on=upon, since=as

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