Techniques in the Process of Translation

Methodological background of the definition of translation

The translation is a process of transformation of the text message and other utterances of the source language into the text message and other utterances of the target language providing that (при условии что) the content of the text message and utterances remains unchanged and the norms of the target language are not violated (нарушены).

Translation is a peculiar type of communication – interlingual communication.

The goal of translation is to transform a text in the Source Language into a text in the Target Language. This means that the message produced by the translator should call forth (вперед, дальше, наружу, впредь) a reaction from the TL receptor similar to that called forth by the original message from the SL receptor (принимающий). The content, that is, the referential meaning of the message with all its implications (последствия) and the form of the message with all its emotive and stylistic connotations (дополнительные, сопутствующие значения) must be reproduced as fully as possible in the translation as they are to evoke (вызывать) a similar response. While the content remains relatively intact (целый, неповрежденный), the form, that is, the linguistic signs of the original, may be substituted (замещаться) or replaced by other signs of the TL because of structural differences at all levels. Such substitutions are justified (обоснованный, справедливый); they are functional and aim at achieving equivalence.

Equivalent texts in the two languages are not necessarily made up of semantically identical signs and grammatical structures and equivalence should not be confused (смешиваться, приводить в замешательство) with identity.

Techniques in the Process of Translation

Basically, a translator has two options for translating:
-Direct or literal translation
-Oblique translation
There are several translation techniques available under each option.

Direct and oblique translation techniques:

1. Borrowing
It is used:
+To overcome a gap or lacuna (a new technical process, a new concept) +Create stylistic effect
+To recreate the flavor of the source language (SL)
Generally, borrowings enter a language through translation, and just as with false friends (false cognates) the translator should strive to look for the equivalents in the SL that convey the meaning of the SL more advantageously.

2. Calque (From the French verb;calquer).Calques are special kind of borrowing where a language borrows a word or an expression from another language and translates literally each of its elements.
- Lexical calque
-Structural calque

3. Literal translation
Literal translation refers to a translation technique that can be used when the languages involved share parallel structures and concepts; NOT to a translation made word for word: Literal translation carries the imprint of the original. This technique is used when it is possible to transpose the source language (SL) message element by element into the target language (TL) and obtain a text that is idiomatic.

4. Transposition
Transposition is the first technique or step towards oblique translation.
-Operates at the grammatical level
-Consists of the replacement of a word class by another word class without changing the meaning.
From a stylistic view point the transposed expression does not have the same value, but the meaning is the same. Transposed expressions are generally more literary in character. It is important to choose the form that best fits the context.
Transposition can be:
-Free: When the transposition used depends mostly on context and desired effect.
-Compulsory: When only a transposition is acceptable.
Types of transposition
Adverb-> verb
Adjective-> noun
Possessive adjective -> definite article
Verb or past participle -> noun
Adverb-> noun
Adverb-> adjective

5.Modulation is a technique that experienced translators use to produce an accurate and idiomatic text. It requires an excellent knowledge of both languages involved in the translation. This includes knowing the mechanics of the language.
Types of modulation
Most of the types are based on metonymy: e.g. referring to a concept by an attribute of it. For example; “the crown” referring to a monarch or “Washington” to refer to the United States government.
1. Abstract -> Concrete or General -> Particular
2. Explanatory modulation:
cause -> effect
means -> result, or viceversa
substance -> object
A part -> the whole
A part -> another part
Term reversal
Negative contrast
Active voice -> passive voice (and vice-versa)
Space -> Time
Intervals and boundaries (in time and space)
Change of symbol
3.Sensory modulation
6. Equivalence

Used to render expressions using different stylistic and structural methods. Most equivalences are fixed, and include idioms, clichés, proverbs, nominal or adjectival phrases, onomatopoeia, etc.
Equivalence also refers to fixed (lexicalized) terms, such as terminology of a field of knowledge.
7. Adaptation
Used when the limit to translation is been reached, i.e. when a simple translation would not work or it would produce a result that is shocking in the target language and culture. Titles of books, movies, and characters often fit into this category.

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