Answer the questions

a. What were the functions of heralds in Homeric Greece?

b. Who was the protector of heralds?

c. What features was Hermes noted for?

d. How were the qualifications of diplomatic relations in Greece changed in the 6^th century BC?

e. What does the term “proxeni” stand for?

f. Which concepts included diplomatic conferences in Sparta in 432 BC?

g. What was the contribution of Romans to diplomatic practice?

h. What does the term “legatio” mean?

i. Whom did Romans produce: skilled negotiators or skilled archivists?

j. What does archivists do?

k. Who were papal emissaries in the 6^th century ad?

l. What were the functions of nuncio?

m. What does the term “plena potens” mean?

n. What were the duties of plenipotentiary?

Read the third part of the text and compare the English and Russian contexts. Check the mistakes in the Russian text.

Historical Overview of Diplomacy

Part 3

Термин «ambassador» (посол) впервые появился во Франции в конце 13 века.

Великобритания стала первой страной, которая отправила постоянного представителя в Испанию в 1847 году.

В своем «Политическом Завещании» Кардинал Ришелье отмечал, что целью дипломатии является установление краткосрочных отношений между странами. Он первым ввел понятие «национальный интерес»

В 16 веке статус дипломата зависел от страны, которую он представлял. Дипломаты того периода не должны были иметь большие резиденции и устраивать щедрые приемы.

С 17 века английский становится официальным языком дипломатии.

В соответствии с Венским Конгрессом 1518 года дипломатия была признана самостоятельной профессией многими странами.

Одним из самых известных мирных предложений после первой Мировой войны является послание американскому Конгрессу «Четырнадцать пунктов» Вудро Вильсона 1918 года. Первый пункт послания гласит, что открытые мирные переговоры не очень эффективны, и необходимо использовать «секретную» дипломатию.

Идеи многосторонней дипломатии были развиты только с появлением ООН.

At the end of the 12^th century, the term ambassador appeared, initially in Italy. Derived from the medieval Latin ambactiare, meaning “to go on a mission”, the term was used to describe various envoys.

Venice, Milan and Mantua played a leading role, in the development of permanent embassies: these cities sent resident ambassadors to each other, to the popes and to the Holy Roman emperors. Among the well known ambassadors were Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Machiavelli.

From Italy the practice was spread to the other European powers. Milan was the first to send the representative to the French court of Luis XI in 1463. As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics the need to accept emissaries was recognized. Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives. Spain was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an ambassador to the Court of England in 1487. By the late 16^th century, permanent missions became customary.

Although the profession of diplomat started with the Italians, it was the French who began to create the very early framework for modern diplomacy. In the 1600’s, Cardinal Richelieu made significant advances in diplomatic theory and practice. He stated in his Political Testament that diplomacy should be a continuous process aimed at creating durable relationships rather than attempting to make opportunistic advances. It was Cardinal Richelieu who established the first foreign ministry in 1626. He pursued the concept of raison d’etat (national interest). At the time, this was an important shift of the emphasis and purpose of diplomacy.

During that period the rules of modern diplomacy were further developed. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. At that time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he was delegated to. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring they have large residences, host lavish parties, and play an important role in the court life of their host nation.

Up until the 18^th century, the language of diplomacy was Latin. Diplomats both wrote and conversed in Latin; documents such as the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), the Anglo-Danish Treaty of 1670 and the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1674 were all drafted in Latin. During the 18^th century the French repeatedly tried to have French as the language of diplomacy. Though the idea was disliked by other European powers, by the middle of the 18^th century French become de facto the language of diplomacy and at the Congress of Vienna (1815) and Congress of Paris (1856) all proceedings were conducted in French. It was only at the Paris Conference of 1918-19 that an English text – the Treaty of Versailles – was recognized as official.

Diplomacy was conducted by statesmen and politicians until the beginning of the 19^th century. It was not until after the Congress of Vienna in 1815 that diplomatic service was recognized as a profession unto itself in various countries.

The next major revolution in diplomacy came with the end of the World War I. The most famous of all peace proposals following World War I was the program of Fourteen Points, delivered by American President Woodrow Wilson in 1918. Two of the fourteen points were: open covenants openly arrived at (which implied an end to “secret” diplomacy) and the establishment of a League of Nations.

It should be underlined that before the establishment of a League of Nations, diplomacy was conducted between individual representatives of nations or for larger treaties at congresses (bilateral diplomacy). The new idea accompanying the League of Nations and carried later to the United Nations was diplomacy through a somewhat permanent state of conference between representatives of many nations.

This system of “ multilateral diplomacy ” is still practicing today; diplomatic relations are presently regulated according to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, a document that was written in 1961 and was adopted in 1964.

Поиск по сайту: