Classification of English consonants

1.voicing (work of the vocal cords & force of exhalation): voiceless-fortis, voiced-lenis.

2.place of articulation (where the air is impeded):

-bilabial(2 lips) p-b

-labiodental(upper teeth-lower lip) f-v

-dental(teeth) ð,θ

-alveolar t-d,s,n,z,l

-retroflex(tip of the tongue curved&moved backwards) r

-palato-alveolar(middle tongue to the hard palate) тч,дж,ш,ж

-palatal(to the soft palate) j

-glottal h(haryngeal)

-velar(back of the tongue) k,g, ŋ

-labiovelar w

3.manner of articulation(kind of construction made by articulators):

-occlusive: plosives(pbtdkg)& sonorants -nasals

-constrictive: fricatives(fvszhðθшж)&semi-vowels(approximants) jwr+lateral l

-occlusive-constrictive (affricates) тч дж

1. What difference can you trace between word stress in english and ukrainian languages.

Word stress (WS) can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound which is usually a vowel.

S-s is variable – any syl-le of a polys-c word can carry the main stress. Signals: pitch of voice (level), sonority of sound (vowel quality: strong, weak; stressed syl-s have strong v-s – pot, Tom, office, odd, man, uns-ed – weak: potato, official, addition, woman), duration in time (length – syl-s are extra long when they are prominant) – together they make syl-s sound louder. Degrees of s-s: primary, secondary (partial), weak. S-s is the comb-n of factors.

S-s may be semantically contrasted (verb – noun: contrast, present). Modify of s-s: photogragh-photographer-photographic).

Rules:1) ‘front weight’ in nouns & adj-s (have s-s on the 1-st syl-le); 2) 2 & 3-syl-le words have a prefix (not stressed), majority are verbs; 3) w-s with suf-s (unstr-ed); 4) certain suf-s cause the syl-le to be st-ed: -ive, -ient, -iant, -ial, -ion, -ic, -ous, -ish, -ify, -ible; 5) –able – doesn’t change the stress; 6) in polys-c w-ds certain suf-s cause the s-s to be placed on the 4-th syl-le fr. the end - -ary, -ator, alimony, literacy, inventory; 7) in compound w-ds – singlestressed – reading-room, music-hall; but adj-es & verbs – 2-stressed – well-bred, give in.

Accentual phonemes (word stress)

The word-stress fulfills the following functions:

· constitutive (helps to organize sound continuum into words)

· recognitive (helps to identify syllables as an accentual pattern of a word)

· distinctive (helps to distinguish the meanings of words: a present – to present)

English words may have a primary stress and a secondary one. Some parts of speech have two equivalent stresses:

→ compound adjectives: absent-minded, dark-eyed

→ phrasal verbs: to get on, to give up

The nature of Word Stress is very complex. Word Stress presupposes such factors as: force, tone, length, vowel color. In such European languages as Russian, German, French, English stress has a dynamic nature (a force character). Musical/ tone word stress may be found in Chinese, Japanese. According to the place of word stress it may be free or fixed. Fixed stress falls on a particular syllable in a polysyllabic word.

- the last syllable in French

- the last but one syllable I Polish

- the first syllable in Finish and Czech.

Russian and English have free word stress. The opposition of the stress may change to distinguish different parts of speech and members of paradigms (‘object – to ob’ject)

Functions and tendencies of the English stress

Word stress in a language performs three functions.1.Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables; a word does not exist without the word stress Thus the word stress performs the constitutive function. Sound continuum becomes a phrase when it is divided into units organized by word stress into words.2. Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word. This function of word stress is known as identificatoiy(у него так в лекции) (or recognitive). Correct accentuation helps the listener to make the process of communication easier, whereas the distorted accentual pattern of words, misplaced word stresses prevent normal understanding.3. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus performing its distinctive function. The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of word stress and their positions form oppositions, e.g. 'import — im'port, 'billow — below.

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