Key Concepts

Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include this new information.

Assimilation - The process of taking in (include, encompass) new information into our previously existing schema’s is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation - Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration - As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes 'intelligence.' Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes,skills and talents.

The following are some of the major theoriesof intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.

Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. Spearman concluded that people who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on other. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.

Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities: Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955). Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities" (Thurstone, 1938). The abilities that he described were:

· Verbal comprehension

· Reasoning

· Perceptual speed

· Numerical ability

· Word fluency

· Associative memory

· Spatial visualization

Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences: Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures:

· Visual-spatial Intelligence

· Verbal-linguistic Intelligence

· Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence

· Logical-mathematical Intelligence

· Interpersonal Intelligence

· Musical Intelligence

· Intra personal Intelligence

· Naturalistic Intelligence

Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence, ' which is comprised of three different factors:

· Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.

· Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.

· Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.

Today, psychologists often account for the many different theoretical viewpoints when discussing intelligence and acknowledge that this debate is ongoing.

Developmental Theories provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning.

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality.

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