Mode of Humidifying

The annual amount of precipitation in the flat territory of Altai changes from 240-250 mm in Kulunda and in the extreme southwest up to 500-550 mm in the southern part of the Biysk-Chumyshsk heights. Such distribution of precipita­tion in general causes the climate transition of the droughty steppe to the forest- steppe. Besides, because of significant heterogeneity of a spreading surface, there are also local peculiarities in humidity. So, the increased quantity of atmospheric precipitation is observed in areas of winding forests. The annual quantity of pre­cipitation in the Altai foothills grows from west to east from 550-650 mm up to 880-850 mm.

The most irregular precipitation occurs in the mountain territory of the re­gion. The most humid areas are the windward mountain slopes of southwest Altai, towering above the neighboring areas which are the first to take the moisture of western flows (up to 2000 mm). A maximum quantity of precipitation in the mountain glacier, pools (more than 2500 mm) falls in the Cholzunsk mountain- ridge. The same features cause the significant quantity of precipitation that fells in the western part of the Katunsk mountain-ridge (up to 2000 mm).

The lowest amount of precipitation is received in the inter-mountain hollows of the southeast - Chuisk hollow (127 mm for one year), Kuraisk hollow (250 mm) and Ukok plateau (230 mm).

During the annual cycle, the maximum quantity of precipitation is observed in July and the minimum in February and March. The distribution of precipitation across the seasons is not regular. During the warmer half-year (April - October), as a rule, about 70% of the annual quantity of precipitation occurs, while only 30% falls in spring and in the first half of summer. April is the driest month. The second half of summer is richer in precipitation. The humidity is greater in the majority of areas of Altai region during autumn rather than in spring, aggravating crop harvest­ing. Only in the central and eastern areas of the mountain territory autumn is drier than spring.

Taking into consideration the most favorable thermal conditions, the cultiva­tion of basic grain agriculture is best on the left bank of the Ob. The basic factor reducing the efficiency of crops in the territory of the Altai region is the lack of moisture. This climate feature is also aggravated by sharp changes of humidity every year.

During the cold period approximately 30 % of the annual precipitation oc­curs. Very little precipitation is observed in the steppe, where auticycionic weather dominates. Therefore, the depth of a snow cover there is low (10-15 cm) and the spring stocks of moisture are insufficient Only in areas close to the Ob does the quantity of winter precipitation increase to 150 mm. The snow cover in the moun­tains of Altai is 1-3 m, in the intermountain hollows it is only 10-20 cm.

Lecture 4 Surface and Underground Waters

There are more than 17,000 rivers in the Altai Territory. 776 rivers are more than 10 km long, 32 rivers are more than 100 km, and 5 rivers are more than 500 km in length. The Altai territory lies at the top of the Ob basin. The Ob is formed from the confluence of the two rivers, the Biya and the Katun, and flows through the plain as a full river. Most of its tributaries are small. The Ob gathers most of its water in the Altai Mountains, where many rivers flow from the glaciers. Their currents are swift and the riverbeds abound with rapids. Tectonic ledges from solid rock create a picturesque scene with waterfalls. The rivers in some parts are almost rectilinear or their outlines repeat the direction of the tectonic heaves. In the middle of the rivers’ length, the character of plains changes as they widen and become gently sloping. On the plateaus and in the mountain hollows the rivers re­semble plain streams. All of the rivers flowing through the lower part of the mountains and foothills have valleys with bottomlands and terraces over them.

The habits of the river watercourses are determined by climatic conditions. Most rivers of the Altai territory are nourished by rain and snow. Subsoil water nour­ishment is rather weak, except for the rivers on the plains. The rivers of the highlands have snow, glacier and rain nourishment. The habits of the rivers change according to the timing of the thaw, rain fails, relief and bottom character. The beginning and the duration of flooding depends on the rapidness of thawing, the altitude of the area, and the speed of water flowing and the river length. During the warm season about 75% runoff for the year is carried out of the mountains. The shortest and the earliest floods are found in the rivers of Kulundinskaya Plain. Flooding in the upper reaches of the Kulunda basin lasts 10-12 days, but in the lower part of the basin it is longer. After floods the water levels in the rivers declines rapidly and the rivers grow shal­low. The lowest water level is observed in the middle or in the end of November and lasts 100 -140 days till the end of March or the middle of April. As the inflow of the surface waters stops, underground waters are spent. The rivers freeze up in October or November. This period lasts 110-170 days, and the ice is 250 - 280 cm thick. The rivers usually begin to open at the end of April.

In places where surface runoff is blocked, such as the low bottomlands, fliere are marshes. One can differentiate three types of marshes: bottom marshes, sur­face marshes and transitional marshes.

Hydrologists define the elements of annual water balance for the Altai territory in terms of: precipitation - 154 km³ (588 mm), evaporation - 105 km³ (399 mm), and runoff-49,4 km³. The common runoff includes the one from the Altai moun­tains (31,7 km³) and the runoff from plains (17,7 km³). The majority of the water flows out of mountain ridges to form the sources of the left tributaries of the Charish.

The rivers of the Altai territory are of great economic importance: there is shipping on the Ob, the Biya, the Katun and the Charish. Water supplies for the villages and towns, as well as irrigation for fields and pastures rely on the rivers. But, hydro - power is not widely used in energy production. A project of building a cascade of small hydro-electric power stations on the river Peschanaya is planned. All the rivers are suitable for fishing. A lot of tourist centers are situated on the banks of the rivers and lakes in picturesque locales.

Characteristics of the Largest Rivers and Lakes

Katun: The lower part of this beautiful river is in the Altai territory. Its source is in Gebler glacier, which is on the south slope of Belukha. The Katun is 688 km long; its basin is 60900 km².

Biya: The Biya is the second longest river of the Altai territory. Its length, together with the Chulishman and Lake Teletskoye, is 619 km; its basin is 37000 km². It runs out of Lake Teletskoye, but its sources are far away in the southeast, where the Bashkaus and the Chulishman spring up from the spurs of Chikhachev Ridge. The Chulishman flows into Lake Teletskoye as a large river, and flows out of it the even bigger Biya. The riverbed abounds in rapids. It takes great skill and courage to get over ridges on rafts and boats. During periods of high water the river is suitable for shipping.

Ob: The river flows through the Altai territory in a wide valley with clear- cut terraces over bottomlands. Its length is 453 km. The left bank is high, with lots of precipices; the right bank is lower. The river is nourished by a combination of: snow (49% prevails) and rain (27%). Floods usually start on June 6 and last till July 31. The maximum water level (up to 1-8 m) is observed in May and in the beginning of June, when mountain snow and glaciers thaw. The lowest w ater level is observed in August and October and it is stopped only by heavy rains. The Ob Reservoir is situated in the north of the territory, behind Kamen-on-Ob. There is a dam near Novosibirsk. The reservoir is 230 km long and 20 km wide; its area is 1070 km². The water level has been observed since 1893. The greatest amount of water was measured on June 5,1969, at 12600 m³/sec, the smallest amount was found on March 7-14,1969, with 125 m³/sec. During the course of any given year the outflow is distributed irregularly.

The Ob has large tributaries in the Altai territory. The left tributaries are: the Peschanaya (276 km, 5660km²), the Anuy (327 km, 6930 km²), the Charish (547 km, 22200 km²), the Aley (828 km, 18200 km^z) and the Bamaulka (207 km, 5720 km²). The right tributaries are: the Chumish (644 km, 23400.km²), the hiya (170 km, 475 km²).

The northwest and the west parts of the Altai territory belong to the area of inner runoff. The region includes the rivers Burla (11180 km²), Kulunda (12400 km²), and the Kuchuk (1020 km²), all of which flow into lakes. These rivers are shallow and nourish with snow waters. In summer small rivers often dry up. Their water becomes mineralized. With the exception of the aforementioned river ba­sins, there is no runoff in the area of 50,000 km².

There are many lakes in the Altai territory: 60% of which are fresh, whereas the rest are salt lakes. The lakes of the Altai territory are subdivided into:

a) Oxbows are formed as a result of erosive and accumulative river activ­ity. There are many of them in the plains.

b) Eroding hollows of aged drainage. Many of which stretched to the northeast. They form river chains, as in the valley of the Bamaulka.

c) Suffusing rivers, called 'steppe. saucers,' May be seen in the Kulundinskaya steppe.

d) Terminal lakes, in which the rivers Kulunda, Kuchuk and Burla fall, are not deep and have silt bottoms. Their waters are mineralized.

e) Hollow lakes in lowlands and highlands are subdivided into flowing (fed with springs) and non-flowing. The regime of the flowing lakes depends on the rivers, which fall into them.

Underground Waters

The Altai territory is situated within the Kulmdinsko-Bamaulsky artesian basin and the Altai-Saiansky basin of the cavity waters. Underground waters play a very important role in the west of the territory where the surface runoff is small. Several water-bearing levels may be found, which differ in character and depth, can be from 50 to 2500 m.

Depending on the depth and occurrence of stratum, underground waters are often salted. Fresh waters constitute about 86% from the common stock. Artesian wells and bore-holes used to access the waters. Subterranean waters which lie 0,5 m - 4 m deep are widely used for water-supply. The level of subterranean waters in lowlands is high; which often leads to the swamping.

Underground waters are distributed irregularly. The largest stocks are in the right-bank part of the Ob valley, in the south-west part of the Priob plateau. Water supply for agriculture has no difficulties, but the center of the Priob plateau and in the foothills waters are of unsatisfactory quality. Water pipes in the region are built not to use water-distillers. Not more than 20% of underground water stocks are used in the Altai territory. 60 reservoirs with a total volume 635 million m³ may be found in the region, including Gilevskoye (471 million m³). The Kulund- insky Canal (182 km) and the Aleysk irrigation canal system (90 km) continue to function. The Burlinskaya irrigating system is being built. There are 12,000 bore­holes in the Altai territory, using 800 - 850 m’ annually; half of them are from underground water stocks. Each Barnaul citizen uses 550 liters daily; Biysk citi­zens use 118 liters, Rubtsovsk citizens use 294 liters, and in the country 126 liters is the norm. ₄

Lecture 5

Glacial and Interglacial Periods in Altai

Despite certain debates concerning the correspondence of some Neopleisto- cene events in Siberia to global paleoclimatic records, it is obvious that nature un­derwent numerous climate changes during that period of time which caused chang­ing of cold (glacial) and warm (interglacial) epochs. In the north of Western Sibe­ria during the period, Brunes paleomagnetic epoch glaciers spread to the south at least seven times, creating large glacial-subpond reservoirs. Meanwhile, in the south in the extraglacial zone less mass was formed.

In the mountain areas of southern Siberia these global events also influenced the development of nature, especially glaciation. Problems concerning sizes, re­peatability and age of ancient glaciations, stadial motions traces and the last glacia­tion peculiarities are either poorly decided or still far from the decision. L. N. Ivanovsky has recently done careful and detailed analysis of these problems. Simi­lar problems found in other mountain countries are also far from the decision and, obviously, have the same general character. As L. N. Ivanovsky has noted, the question connected with the recurrence of glacial epochs and their age raises the possibility of proving the existence of Midpleistocene glaciation traces in particu­lar and remained uncertain as recently as tens of years ago. Meanwhile this prob­lem is of significant importance and its decision greatly depends on answering other questions of evolutionary geography in mountain countries.

Many questions connected with ancient glacial periods of mountain territo­ries are debatable because of insufficient diagnostics of the forms of relief and de­posits. Frequently the same forms of relief or deposits are considered to be both glacial and inglacial from the point of view of different researchers.

The situation is especially difficult in the mountains of Central Asia. Nu­merous conditions of ancient glaciation development complicate systematization and diagnostics of the old glaciation relief forms. Moreover, chances to study the newest unconsolidated deposits are rather limited. All these facts have greatly in­fluenced the formation of the various points of view on the history of the develop­ment of glacial and interglacial natural conditions in the mountains.

According to W. W. Zamoruev’s opinion, there are currently two scientific schools dealing with the glacial history of mountain countries—traditional and al­ternative. The traditional paleoglaciology school distinguishes traces of several in­dependent glacial epochs in the mountain relief, while the alternative school criti-

cizes this traditional concept and proves glacial traces to be the result of the late Pleistocene glaciation only (or both: mid- and late Pleistocene).

The researchers’ aim to “mark” traces of several glacial epochs in mountain countries is encouraged by their effort to find equivalents of morainic horizons in the mountains like those already found in the plains. This wish can now be strengthened by the occurrence of numerous materials on paleoclimatic records of the oceans, glacial covers and ground deposits of lakes demonstrating the existence of several warm and cold epochs in Pleistocene. For example, the authors of the Baikal paleoclimatic record speak about 10 glaciations in the Baikal region.

A review of the literature on various mountain countries shows the'situation is similar to that analyzed by L. N. Ivanovsky for Baikal that practically every­where else. Most publications reflect the traditional opinion, however there are numerous works whose authors are of a different opinion.

To characterize glacial and interglacial periods in Altai it is necessary to de­fine their manifestation traces on the area and in the profiles of Pleistocene uncon­solidated deposits. There are several points of view on this problem, and it is solving this in the first place that makes the main skeleton of paleographic reconstruction.

It is hardly considered that all global Pleistocene tectonic and climatic changes of natural conditions did not occur in this or that way in Altai. However, it does not mean that all of them should be fixed in the relief or sediment strata (mass); especially in certain sediment profiles of that time which are placed, as a rule, in the regions of active weathering and washout.

Nowadays there are efficient lithological criteria of Neopleistocene deposits in Altai which are mainly characterized by grey (pale-yellow) color and better safety of fragmental material in comparison with more ancient (for example, Pleiocene) ones. At the same time, some researchers prove the existence of brown deposits in Neopleistocene strata.

Common features of Neopleistocene glaciations in Altai had been thor­oughly investigated already by the first half of the 20^th century, and on this basis various units of giaciai cycles were built. As a whole, P. A. Okishev analyzed problems of ancient Altai glaciation in the last century.

The history of Altai paleoglaciological research proves frequent use of chronostratigraphical schemes in better-investigated regions. In the 1920s through the 1950s the Alpine four-multiplied circuit of Pleistocene glaciation was widely used. In the 1980s the stratigraphical scheme, which had horizons of eight glacial epochs, correlated to the stratigraphical succession of Ch.Emiliany’s isotope curve reflecting sedimentogenesis of deep-sea oceanic sediments, was adopted. From the 1960s through the 1980s researchers began to think about 2-3 glaciations in Al[†] tai, sometimes subdivided into phases or megastadials. Mostly due to research of Y. W. Devyatkin, P. A. Okishev and Y. P. Seliverstov, paleoglaciology was devel­oped in Altai in the second half of the last century. L. N. Ivanovsky’s role in studying ancient glacial processes is of great importance.

The basic point of view, dominant in research on glacial events in Altai in the 19^th and 20^л centuries, is connected with the existence of several glacial and inter- glacial epochs. Many scientists discovered some grey layers in profiles. Each layer corresponds to a definite epoch. Other scientists believed that it was impossible to correlate layers and epochs according to lithological and facial sediments, because the number of later glaciations constantly reduced. They also discussed the mor- phostratigraphic differences of glaciations. Both concepts have contributed to the study of Altai glaciations in the Pleistocene period. However, none of these con­cepts has had enough factual grounding, although it is obvious that complicated gla­cial complexes of consecutive glacial reduction existed during the period of glacia­tion degradation (morpholithocomplexes, according to W. W. Butvilovsky, or limno-glacial complexes, according to Y.P. Seliverstov and D. W. Sevastyanov).

However, new points of view appeared between the 1970s and the 1980s:

2. I. There were several Pleistocene glaciations in Altai, the largest of them - in Midpleistocene (with more than 1300 Scientists point to two chief glacial cycles - megastadials - in the late Pleistocene period. The snow-line depressions of the oldest one was less than 850m. Regressive steps of megastadials were characterized by phasic glacial motions: 2- in the first, 7 - in the second.

3. The last regressive stage of the 17* through the 19* centuries is still occuring, so modem glaciers are relicts of the second late Pleistocene megastadial (N. М.).

4. Mountain glaciation in Altai and cover glaciers in the north of West­ern Siberia developed metachronically.

Intramontane and intermontane basin (Chuiskaya, Kuraiskaya, Uimonskaya, Bertekskaya etc.) deposits are the most perspective for paleographic reconstruction in Altai. For example, in Chuya basin (by the way, one of the most investigated in Altai) W. \V. Butvilovsky defines 5-6 sediment cycles. It is difficult to find out their climatochronoiogical rank and origin. Taking into account modem and late Plistocene situations and rhythmostratigraphy methodology, W. W. Butvilovsky hypothesized that rudaceous deposits accumulated in subaerial conditions, similar to modem ones, while thin-laminated clayey deposits accumulated in subaqueous ones when vast lake reservoirs appeared, perhaps created by glacial sub-ponds.

Still fragmentary information on Altai Neopleistocene allows discussion of five sedimentation cycles. However, there is practically no opportunity to break down uncovered mass into two or some horizons having status of independent gla­cial or interglacial epochs. Today there is no way to be sure of some glacial and interglacial complexes in Altai profiles.

In other known Pleistocene sections, deposits of the only glacial epoch have been fixed (for example, Chagan section).

The most widely used radiocarbon method for dating glacial and interglacial sediments is not perfect because of its short time range. On the other hand ther­moluminescence (TL) dating, which was widely used for creation of stratigraphic scales, raises doubts connected to the debatable physical bases of this method and its unreliability.

According to paleomagnetic, thermolumeniscence and radiocarbon dating of deposits, the Midpleistocene glaciation in Altai is considered to be the largest, while the following late Pleistocene glaciations are much smaller in size. Other researchers, together with W. S. Sheinkman who used the new TL-method of dat­ing, think the late Pleistocene glaciation was the largest in Altai. This raises a question of other periods of glaciation in Altai. If all previous glaciations had similar sizes, or the last one was the largest, it is necessary to search for their traces basically in sections of friable sediments, which are not enough.

At the same time, investigations of this area confirm that it is necessary to conduct such work in Altai with the help of TL-method, which offers the best available data. The use of previous dating methods requires certain care, though they are a basis of chronostraligraphical constructions in Siberia.

U. P. Seliverstov continued his paleoglaciological research in Altai in the 1990s. The author also took part in this research. U. P. Seliverstov supported the idea of plural glaciations in mountains of Internal Asia. He picked out traces of two young glaciations and marked the rest of the leveled platforms above them, carrying to more ancient glaciation. They belonged to young constructions of the Ice Age period of time, and more ancient constructions - to Risskiy period. U. P. Seliverstov analyzed the character of relations between glacial constructions of the Ice Age period in con­nection with the ridges of the Russian and Mongolian Altai, as well as the Tzagan- Shibetu and Tannu-Ola ridges. He discovered triple ice motions far off the limits of mountain slopes from the early Ice Age period, and each time ice returned to moun­tains again. According to him, glacial constructions of the late Ice Age period are lo­cated in valleys or are enclosed in constructions of the early Ice Age period.

Thus, U. P. Seliverstov supported the idea of the maximal development of glaciation in Altai in the late Neopleistocene, although he supposed large glacia­tion in some areas of Mid- Neopleistocene as well.

So, paleoglafciological research in Altai conducted during the last two dec­ades showed that glacial deposits and forms of relief could be divided into four time intervals. Sediments and moraines are the most ancient of the late Neopleisto­cene glaciation, which was maximal in Altai (except for larger glaciation in Mid- Neopleistocene). Glaciers of that time formed large intermontane-valley com­plexes, joined to intramontane basins. Sometimes they formed glacial basins (Dyulukulskaya, Bertekskaya, Karakabinskaya, Verhnekobdosskaya). They also created glacial-pond reservoirs locking neighbor narrow valleys between basins or below nonglacial valleys (Chuiskaya, Kuraiskaya, Uymonskaya, Tuzharskaya, Kunduktukulskaya).

The reduction of this glaciation (or megastadial) has passed through three large shifts, which left limno-glacial complexes in wide valleys and basins, while in narrower ones it separated mountain valleys moraine-colluvial complexes strongly broken by processes of megastradial and the second megastadial. Fre­quently such complexes are settled down in narrower troughs, which we some­times call "raviney" troughs.

There is still a problem of absolute chronology of late Pleistocene events in Altai. Now it is popular to compare the received new materials of Altay paleo- geography with the data of global paleoclimatic records and on this basis to give age ratings to Late Pleistocene events.

So, practically the whole area of glacial development traces expressed in re­lief and discovered in deposits belongs to the last (late Pleistocene) glaciation. W. W. Butvilovsky confines them to the period of 10,000-25,000 years; whereas P. A. Qkishev and Y. P. Seliverstov focus on Late Pleistocene as a whole, i.e. to the first and the second megastadials (early and late Ice Age periods). At the same time this conclusion shows that glaciation development area of Late Neopleisto­cene covers the territory larger than it was considered earlier.

Lecture 6 Vegetation of the Altai Region

The characteristics of the vegetation of the Altai region arise from its geo­graphical location, its complicated geographical history, and the variety of present environmental conditions, especially in the mountainous part. Being surrounded by the West Siberian and the Kazakhstan steppes in the south and west, by the vast forested areas of the Salair and the western Sayan mountains in the east, and by de- sert-steppe landscapes of Central Asia in the south-east, the vegetation comprises many different elements of the flora of adjacent regions. Endemic and relic plants give one more peculiarity of the floristic composition of the region.

The steppes of the Altai arc similar to the adjacent plains. Differences arise mostly from the more humid climate of the region, which supports the growth of a more mesophilic flora.

Meadows of the Altai region are mostly used as pastures. The species num­ber is rather low in comparison with meadows of other regions and comprise usu­ally 30-40 species.

In the southern steppe zone the amount of xerophytic plants increases whereas the role of mesophytic herbs decreases. __

The xcerophytic desert steppes occur mostly in the Chuyskaya depression. In the other mountain regions steppes may be observed only as more or less iso­lated islands. In the south-east of Altai the steppes merge directly in the high- mountain vegetation.

A great diversity of plant communities can be met on steppe soils of differ­ent degree of alkalinity' and on salt licks (sodic soil, white alkali). These communi­ties cover large areas on the slopes of lake depressions. The holophytic vegetation d

is characterized by a low species number and the low abundance of grass species. Currently these areas are mostly used for pastures.

Pine Forests

Pine forests are characteristic for Altai region. They are mostly composed of Scotch pine. Pines can be found in the Altai up to an altitude of 1570 m.

Pines in the region suffer from frequent fires and a great amount of fimgi dis­eases as well as entomo-pests - silk-worms, homtails, moths, and inch-worms. Belts of pine forests stretch from north-east to south-west in the valleys of the Ob and Irtysh rivers. These areas are from 3 to 12 km wide and about 400 km long. Those forests are composed of pine birch, aspen, fern, grasses and a high number of herbs.

In the vicinity of the Altai pine forests can be found in the northern parts. During the Tertiary the Altai was covered to a large extent by broad-leaved forest containing beech, sequoia, maple, lime, ash and others.

Taiga with islands of lime (Tilia cordata) trees can still be found in the Salairsky mountain chain and in the Lebed river basin in North-Eastern Altai. Ad­ditionally the forests comprising Tilia are also characterized by a high number of herbacens species occurring in the European and Asian broad-leaved forests. In Si­beria those plants show a disjunctive distribution pattern and occupy an isolated distribution range. Due to the fact these forests are affiliated with European and East-Asian forests and.are considered to be relicts of tertiary broad-leaved forests.

Meadows

Meadows occur in plains, ravine slopes, terraces and the margins of forest outliers in the steppe zone.

Locations of wetland communities composed of reed, club rush and reed- mace are considered to be part of meadow vegetation.

Well-developed subalpine and alpine meadows are also frequently met in the Altai mountains.

The subalpine belt is the transitional zone from forests to alpine meadows and mountain tundra.

The most characteristic plants of the alpine meadows are sedge and grasses. Alpine meadows comprise also columbines, fire-plants, hedysarums, and buttercups
that make a colorful picture. In higher elevation the alpine vegetation is sometimes called “small-grass alpine meadow” and these lawns are less colorful, but comprise a few beautiful plants like Viol altaica, Caliianthemum angustifolium, Schultzia crrnita, Lagotis integrifolia, Pedicularis oederii, and Ranunculus aitaicus.

Swamps

The formation of swamps both on plains as well as in the mountains are mainly connected with the activity of ancient glaciers. Swamps are spread in the hol­lows of ancient runoffs of glacier waters on the plain and in large inter-mountain de­pressions. Many lakes have turned into dry land through the stage of swamps.

Of course, the vegetation of the Altai mountains comprises also vegetation types of disturbed lands that are characterized by weed species.

<*

We have divided all the species growing on the territory of the Altai into three groups, according in their occurrence in different altitudes. (Table 3).

The highest species number can be observed in the families of the Ranuncu- lacee - 38.6% and Poaceae 38%. The Brassicaceae comprise many annuals that are well-adapted to arid conditions.

Table 4

All species of the Altai region have been divided into 13 geographical groups:

® Cosmopolitans • occurring almost all over the world;

• Holarctic - in Europe, Asia, and North America;

• Eurasian - in Europe and Asia;

• Asian - throughout all of Asia;

• Central Asian - in Altai, Mongolia, Sayans; in the mountains of Cen­tral Asia; and in the Bulkhashsky, Aral-Kaspiysky and Kysyl-Kumsky flora regions;

• Mediterranean - in Europe, Asia and the Mediterranean flora region of adjacent countries (USSR Flora, 1964);

• Central Asian Altai - in the mountains of Central Asia, Altai, Sayans;

• Altai Sayanskaya - in Altai, or Altai and Sayans, Mongolian Altai;

• East Siberian - the flora district that only slightly enters Altai;

• Far Eastern - there are some findings in the region, separated from the main areas of the Far East;

• European - which spreads mainly in Europe, west of the Urals, and in our region. (See Table 5).

TableS

Lecture 7 Altai Region During Reforms

1. The Altai Region is located in the south of West Siberia; it includes two subjects of the Russian Federation - the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai. In the west, the Altai Territory borders on Kazakhstan, in the north and northeast on Novosibirsk and Kemerovo regions' and in the south on the Republic of Altai. The administrative centre of the Altai Territoiy is Barnaul (as of January 1, 2003 the population was 666,000 people). Biysk, with a population of 232,000 and Rubtsovsk, with a population of 162,000, are the major towns of the territory. The territory is made up of 60 administrative districts including the Nemetsky (Ger­man) national district. The total population is 2.6 million people, 57% of which

»

live in urban and 47% in rural areas. The average population density is 15 people per square kilometer.

2. The Republic of Altai is mountainous and relatively small in terms of its area (92,900 km²,0.5% of the total area of the Russian Federation) and population (203,000 people). It shares borders with China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan. The capital is Gorno-Altaisk which is the only urban area in the Republic. 51,000 peo­ple live there and the number is growing slowly. 73% of the population still live in rural areas. The average populat ion density is 2.1 people per km².

3. The Altai Territory was formed in 1937 as a result of the division of the West-Siberian Territory into the Altai Territory and the Novosibirsk Region. At that time, the Oirot Region (now the Republic of Altai) formed a part of the Terri- toiy. Agriculture was the basis of the economy. In the 1930s, a rapid growth of col­lective farms began and by 1940 they possessed 87% of agricultural lands and only 2% were left for private farms. This process is likely to have played a negative role in the formation of highly productive agriculture, which had developed extensively since its collectivization. The period of World War II was characterized by a rapid growth of the industrial potential based on evacuation of enterprises from the Western part of the country (more than 100 enterprises on the whole, 24 of which were of major national significance).

4. In the post-war period, the Territory became an agricultural-industrial re­gion, 80% of the tractor ploughs, 34% of goods wagons and 30% of steam boilers in the Russian Federation were produced there. The Territory became one of the major suppliers of wheat. The increase of cereal production was mainly due to the ploughing up of virgin lands. In the years 1954 to 1955,2,657,000 hectares of land were brought into agricultural use. Collective and socialist farms became the main land users, about 100% of farming lands were assigned to them. General ploughing up of the land caused wind erosion with regular dust storms and the decrease of soil fertility as a result.

5. In terms of the geographical division of labour, the Altai Region is a tradi­tional agricultural-industrial region in the south of West Siberia. The leading posi­tion in its industry structure belongs to machine building and metalworking, food industry, electro-energetics and ferrous metal industry. Large-scale enterprises of machine building, chemistry and defense industry, which produce tractors, diesel engines, boilers, goods wagons, artificial fibers, tires, coke, etc constitute the core of the Altai Territory industry.

6. The Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai are the main agricultural ar­eas in Russia, the Altai Territory being the centre of plant growing and the Repub­lic of Altai of cattle breeding. About 30% of grain production in West Siberia is located on the area of the Territory.

7. In contrast to other Siberian regions which are also not well-endowed with natural resources, the structure of the national economy of the Altai Territory is characterized by the predominance of the agricultural sector. Together with the remote location of the region this entails a poor adaptability to market conditions.

8. As early as in the 1980s profound inequalities showed in the economy of the territory. The availability of infrastructure and social services was highly dif­ferential between big and small towns and urban and rural settlements. Similarly, great disproportions within one and the same industry could be observed (for ex­ample, between production and processing of agricultural produce).

9. Thus the starting position of the Altai Territory at the moment of transi­tion to the market economy was estimated as rather unfavourable, which couldn’t but effect its further development pace which caused the aggregate economy of the region to decline.

10. The efforts in soil fertility preservation and land reclamation have been practically stopped. The quantity of production in cattle breeding is decreasing, the cattle and poultry population is reducing, their productivity is decreasing, the ac­cumulated production potential is going to ruin. Capital outflows are considerably higher than capital inflows.

11. In cattle population, the territory has fallen back 36 years, in pig popula­tion 22 years, in poultry 26 years, in sheep and goat population 40 years. The total volume of meat output has reduced to the level of the 1960s, of milk and eggs to" the level of the 1970s.

12. The decrease of agricultural output has worsened food processing indus­try work. In recent years, the basic foodstuffs production has dropped 30 to 50%.

13. The recession of agricultural production, low labour productivity in agri­culture together with its great proportion in the economy of the region have caused the fall of the territory economy on the whole and considerable under exploitation of manpower which manifests itself in open and latent unemployment.

14. The Region belongs to the category of economically laggard regions. Depressed industries are machine building, light industries and defense; their share in the territory economy is more than 50%. Because of price liberation, West Sibe­rian regions have sharply split up into two large groups: a raw materials (resource extractive) group and a processing group.

15. As a result of unfavourable industrial production dynamics, the signifi­cance of the Altai Territory in the economy of the country has been decreasing continuously. Thus while the volume of output in Russia on the whole has dropped by 49% over the last ten years, in the Altai Territory' it has dropped by 66%, in Novosibirsk region by 54%, in Kemerovo region by 40%, in Tomsk region by 33% and in Tyumen region by 34%.

16. The Altai Territory is characterized by significant migration processes. This is due to internal migration but above all to external migration connected with the considerable population influx from the regions of Middle Asia and Kazakh­stan and the outflow of German population to Germany.

17. Mass emigration ol Altai Germans and their family members of other na­tionalities to Germany is a m-w clement of modem migration situation in Altai. The German constitute <>X%.>1 the emigrated population and only 28% are made up by Russians. The mam юг,on of the flight to Germany is social-economic prob-

lems in Russia and different levels of economic and social development in Russia and Germany. The greatest outflow of German population is concentrated in the areas of their compact residence: the Nemetsky (German) autonomous district, Tabunsky, Slavgorodsky districts, the towns of Barnaul, Slavgorod, Rubtsovsk. Simultaneously, the Germans from other regions of Russia and from the countries of the former Soviet Union arrive in the Altai Region (1,500 - 5,000 people annu­ally). The immigration from new independent states to the permanent residence in Altai almost makes up the deficiency in demographic potential as it compensates the natural losses of the local population and is a supplementary labour potential. Within the last years, such migration has been the main source of demographic po­tential preservation in the territory.

18. The Republic of Altai is similar to the Altai Territory in many aspects of its economic development. However, it differs greatly in its natural conditions and specific character of its economic development.

19. The Republic of Altai has preserved its unique landscapes, which allows it to become a cultural health centre, a centre of mountaineering, mountain and wa­ter tourism, commercial game-shooting and mass recreation. Just at the moment, every summer thousands of tourists from the Altai Territory, Novosibirk, Tomsk and Kemerovo regions spend their holidays in the Altai Mountains. At present, an active commercial development of the area is taking place. The republic has come across the threat of the loss of some kinds of natural resources, a part of flora and fauna diversity. The planned construction of a gas pipeline and a highway through the World Nature Heritage of the Republic should be mentioned in particular. Ef­fects of this construction could lead to the loss of natural and cultural uniqueness of the Ukok plateau, situated in the extreme south of the'Republic on the border with China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan.

20. In comparison to other subjects of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Altai has a number of characteristic features which distinguish it to its advantage from other regions.

a). It is situated comparatively close to the densely populated regions, which considerably lowers transportation expenses.

b). Poor development of the territory attracts domestic tourism, not used to the “western” comfort of traveling.

c). Rich and diverse flora and fauna opens new possibilities to combine ac­tive recreation with photo and video game-hunting or collecting therapeutic herbs and edible plants.

21. Along with all these, the Republic of Altai is one of the most economi­cally backward regions in Russia. The economy historically depends on subsidies from Moscow. Earlier they made up 70% and now more than 90% of the Repub­lic’s budget. Due to their climate conditions two remote alpine districts of the Re­public - Kosh-Agach and Ulagan - were conferred the same status as the regions of the Extreme North.

22. The Republic of Altai has greatly suffered from economic reorganization in Russia. The basis for the light industry has been ruined; the agriculture has fallen into decay. The price increase for fuel and foodstuffs has resulted in a com­plete dependence on federal subsidies - the level of which has been increasing slowly and their payment has been often delayed. The remoteness of the Altai and poor knowledge in the sphcu- of small basic capital management hampers the de­velopment of business.

23. In our opinion, tin future of the Republic of Altai should be connected with pure water and air, unique sceneries, cultural values and traditional branches of nature management (rei nation, livestock farming, wild animals breeding and handicraft industries).

m of snow-line depres­sion). The largest glaciers reached the bottom of mountains.

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