Aspects of Translator Reliability

General scientific summaries The aim of the general scientific summary in NJP is for an author to explain to a general reader (with an assumed graduate physics background) why their research was done and why the results are important.

Essays are generally scholarly pieces of writing written from an author's personal point of view, but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet and a short story. Scientific essays are challenging to write. While most essays are conversational and persuasive, a scientific essay is meant to inform. The structure and format of a scientific essay is different from other types of writing. Knowing these key differences is an important part of writing a well-written essay. Here is how to write a scientific essay. A scientific article This is the most important type of paper. It provides new information based on original research. This category of paper is usually prospective and is supported by in-depth statistical analysis. The conclusions should be supported by the data provided in the results.

A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word "thesis" or a cognate is used for part of a bachelor's or master's course, while "dissertation" is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts, the reverse is true. Dissertations and theses may be considered as grey literature.

39 Word formation

Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. Word formation is the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.. There are four main ways of word-building in modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation.

Affixation is the creation of a word by modifying its root with an affix. It is a very productive type of word formation.

In conformity with the division of derivational affixes into suffixes and prefixes affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation.

In modem English suffixation is characteristic of noun and adjective formation. Prefixation is typical of verb formation.

Suffixation. The main function of suffixes in Modem English is to form one part of speech from another; the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, (e.g. «educate» is a verb, «educatee» is a noun, and «music» is a noun, «musicdom» is also a noun).

There are different classifications of suffixes: part-of-speech classification, semantic classification, lexico-grammatical classification, classification according to the origin of suffixes, according to their productivity.

Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) (cf. over the table). The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.

Composition is the way of wordbuilding when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon: a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphenated spelling, c) semantic unity, d) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in

an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood-vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow-white, sky-blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphenated spelling. Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break, insofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break. All the more so that there has appeared in Modem English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change, pinguin suit etc.

The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain etc. In nonidiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e.g., airbus, to bloodtransfuse, astrodynamics etc.

Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation. The term «conversion» first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet «New English Grammar» in 1891. Conversion is treated differently by different scientists, e.g. prof. A.I. Smimtitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when one part of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm, e.g. to form the verb «to dial» from the noun «dial» we change the paradigm of the noun (a dial, dials) for the paradigm of a regular verb (1 dial, he dials, dialed, dialing).

Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modem English.

Abbreviations. In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened.

The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra- linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modem English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time.

There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other languages are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. the Latin borrowing «fanaticus» is shortened to «fan» on the analogy with native words: man, pan, tan etc.

There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.

There are also secondary ways of word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends and back formation.

Aspects of Translator Reliability

Translation users need to be able to rely on translations & they need to be able to trust the translator. There are several aspects of translator reliability:

1) textual reliability. Types of text reliability:

- literalism – the T follows the original word-for-word or as close to that ideal as possible;

- foreignism – the T reads fairly fluently but has a slight alien touch; one can tell reading it that it is a T not an original;

- fluency – the T is readable for the TL reader as to seem like an original in the TL;

- summary – the T covers the main points of the original;

- commentary – the T unfolds the hidden complexities of the original, exploring implications that remain unstated of half-stated in the original;

- summary commentary – the T summarizes some passages briefly while commenting closely on others;

- adaptation – the T recasts the original so as to have the desired impact on the audience, i.e. substantially different from that of the original;

- inscription – the T recasts the original so as to hide its meaning or message from 1 group while still making it accessible to another group which possesses the key.

2) translator reliability can be:

· with regard to the text; attention to detail, sensitivity to the user’s needs, research, checking;

· with regard to the client; versatility – the range of interests is huge & translator must be ready to translate everything; promises – realistic promises as to delivery dates; friendliness; confidentiality;

· with regard to technology; hardware & software.

The T must also be timely in the sense of not arriving past the time f its usefulness & value.

43. Generative - Transformational Grammar: general characteristics.

linguistic theory associated with Noam Chomsky, particularly with his Syntactic Structures (1957), and with Chomsky's teacher Zellig Harris. Generative grammar attempts to define rules that can generate the infinite number of grammatical (well-formed) sentences possible in a language. It starts not from a behaviorist analysis of minimal sounds but from a rationalist assumption that a deep structure underlies a language, and that a similar deep structure underlies all languages. Transformational grammar seeks to identify rules (transformations) that govern relations between parts of a sentence, on the assumption that beneath such aspects as word order a fundamental structure exists. Transformational and generative grammar together were the starting point for the tremendous growth in linguistics studies since the 1950s. In the 1950s the school of linguistic thought known as transformational-generative grammar received wide acclaim through the works of Noam Chomsky. Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex sentences. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to an actual sentence of a language. All languages have the same deep structure, but they differ from each other in surface structure because of the application of different rules for transformations, pronunciation, and word insertion. Another important distinction made in transformational-generative grammar is the difference between language competence (the subconscious control of a linguistic system)

And language performance (the speaker's actual use of language). Although the first work done in transformational-generative grammar was syntactic, later studies have applied the theory to the phonological and semantic components of language.

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