Derivational patterns

A derivational pattern is a regular meaningful arrangement of immediate constituents in the derived word, a structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together.

Patterns of derivative structures are usually represented in a generalised way in terms of conventional symbols: small letters v, n, a, d, пит

DPs may represent derivative structure at different levels of generalisation:

a) at the level of structural types specifying only the class membership of ICs and the direction of motivation, such as a+-sf -> N, prf- + n -> V, prf- n -> N, n + -sf -> N, n + -sf -> V, etc.

In terms of patterns of this type, known as structural formulas, all words may be classified into four classes:

1. suffixal derivatives, e.g. friendship, glorified, blackness, skyward

2. prefixal derivatives, e.g. rewrite, exboxer, non-smoker, un-happy

3. conversions, e.g. a cut, to parrot, to winter

4 .compound words key-ring, music-lover, wind-driven.

But derivational formulas are not indicative either of any one lexical-grammatical or lexical class of words, as, for example, the formula a + -sf may equally represent suffixal nouns as in blackness, possibility and verbs, as in sharpen, widen, or adjectives as in blackish.

b) derivative structure and hence derivative types of words may be represented at the level of structural patterns which specify the base classes and individual affixes thus indicating the lexical-grammatical and lexical classes of derivatives within certain structural classes of words. The suffixes refer derivatives to specific parts of speech and lexical subsets as, for example, v + -er -> N signals that the derivatives built on this pattern are de-verbal nouns which represent a semantic set of active agents, denoting both animate and inanimate objects, e.g. reader, runner, singer, unlike, for example, denominal nouns with the underlying pattern п+ -еr -> N which stands for agents denoting residents or occupations, e.g. Londoner, villager, gardener. The DP n+-ish -> A signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning of resemblance, whereas a + -ish -> A signals adjectives meaning a small degree of quality.

c) DPs may be specified as to the lexical-semantic features of both ICs. DPs of this level specify the semantic constraints imposed upon the set of derivatives for which the pattern is true and hence the semantic range of the pattern. For example, the nominal bases in the pattern n+-ess -> N are confined to nouns having in their semantic structures a component ‘a female animate being’, e.g. lioness, traitress, stewardess, etc.; the nominal bases in n+-ful -> N are limited by nouns having a semantic component ‘container’, e.g. lungful, carful, mouthful, whereas in n+ -ful -> A the nominal bases are confined to nouns of abstract meaning.

Itfollows that derivational patterns may be classified into two types — structural pattern (see b, above) and structural-semantic pattern (see c).

6) The three main sources of enriching vocabulary.

1. Borrowings ( заимствования) – terminology, nutrition (pasta, spaghetti)

By a borrowing or loan-word we mean a word which came into the vocabulary of one language from another and was assimilated by the new language.

Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different. It may be wars, invasions or conquests when foreign words are in effect imposed upon the reluctant conquered nation. There are also periods of peace when the process of borrowing is due to trade and international cultural relations.

The question of why words are borrowed by one language from another is still unanswered.

- Sometimes it is done to fill a gap in vocabulary. When the Saxons borrowed Latin words for "butter", "plum", "beet", they did it because their own vocabularies lacked words for these new objects.

- There may be a word (or even several words) which expresses some particular concept, so that there is no gap in the vocabulary and there does not seem to be any need for borrowing. Yet, one more word is borrowed which means almost the same, — almost, but not exactly. It is borrowed because it represents the same concept in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring. This type of borrowing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary. (the Latin cordial - the native friendly, the French desire – wish)

Borrowed words are usually adjusted in the three main areas of the new language system: the phonetic, the grammatical and the semantic.

2. Word formation – the main source (1/3)

By word-building are understood processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language. Together with borrowing, word-building provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

English has many patterns to build new words.

Word-formation – branch of L. which studies the derivative structure of existing ws and the patterns on which the K. builds new ws.

Word-Formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.

Means of word formation:

I. main/major/patterned means

1. word derivation (словопроизводство): affixation, conversion (N>V)

2. word composition/compounding (словосложение)

a trouser suit – брючной костюм (new consept)

II. secondary/minor/non-patterned means

1. sound interchange (man-men, live-life) Historical means

2. stress interchange (‘input – to in’put, ‘progress – to pro’gress)

3. Back-formation (it is still used) – against the logics of the language/ but not against the logics of life.

peas>pea

a babysitter > to baby-sit (logically V > N)

4. Shortening/ abbreviation (lab, exam, Euratom, V-day)

5. Artificial creation of ws (trade marks are made)

nylon

adidas (Adi Dassler)

3. To develop new meanings, creation of a new meaning (semantic extension/semantic derivation – семантическая деривация)

Two opposite processes take place: enrichment of the vocabulary and words die or become bookish.

Webster dictionary: 6000new words, among them 7,5% - borrowings, the majority – derived words.

The number of sound combinations that human speech organs can produce is limited. Therefore at a certain stage of language development the production of new words by morphological means becomes limited, and polysemy becomes increasingly important in providing the means for enriching the vocabulary. From this, it should be clear that the process of enriching the vocabulary does not consist merely in adding new words to it, but, also, in the constant development of polysemy.

It should be noted that the wealth of expressive resources of a language largely depends on the degree to which polysemy has developed in the language.

Semantic extension of words already available in the language is a powerful

source of qualitative growth and development of the vocabulary though it does not necessarily add to its numerical growth; it is only the split of polysemy that results in the appearance of new vocabulary units thus increasing the number of words.

7) The complex units of word-building system. Word-building cluster, row, category.

Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary.

By word-building are understood processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language.

A derivational row (set) – is a group of words built according to the same pattern, the same affix.

Row unites the words with the same pattern and affixes.

head ward – направленный к голове

side ward – направленный вбок

back less ful ward – направленный назад

hand

face

arm

foot

N > V - conversion

Bn + suf >A (lacking in sth =less)

A derivational cluster – is a complex unity of ws with the same root morpheme, they are united by the root, they are close in meaning, but are built after a number of patterns, which are different. The depth of the cluster shows us the number of steps, the degree of derivation.

The volume of the cluster – is the number of derivatives in a cluster.

brotherly

↑adv

brother

to brother v← ↓n → adj brotherlike

brothership brotherless

stepbrother ↓ n

↓ brother –in-law brotherlessness (2 degree)

brotherhood

to brother-in-law (2 degree)

This method was introduced by Soboleva,

Lexical groups composed of words with semantically and phonemically identical root-morphemes are usually defined as word-families or word-clusters. The term itself implies close links between the members of the group. Such are word-families of the type: lead, leader, leadership; dark, darken, darkness; form, formal, formality and others. It should be noted that members of a word-family as a rule belong to different parts of speech and are joined together only by the identity of root-morphemes.

A derivational category – patterns of different kinds can have the same meaning that makes a derivational category.

Agent

1. actress

duchess female

lioness

2. activist

capitalist

humanist

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