Connotational meaning

The connotational meaning [1] is the second component of lexical meaning. This component or the connotation includes the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the word.
19. Polysemy. The word «polysemy» means «plurality of meanings» it exists only in the language, not in speech. A word, which has more than one meaning, is called polysemantic. There are some words in the language which are monosemantic, such as most terms, /synonym, molecule, bronchitis/, some pronouns /this, my, both/, numerals. There are two processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation and concatination.

In cases of radiation the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primmary meaning. E.g. in the word «face» the primary meaning denotes «the front part of the human head» connected with the front position the meanings: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part of a playing card were formed. Connected with the word «face» itself the meanings: expression of the face, outward appearance are formed.

In cases of concatination secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain. In such cases it is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one. E.g. in the word «crust» the primary meaning «hard outer part of bread» developed a secondary meaning «hard part of anything /a pie, a cake/»

20.Semantic change. Types and causes of semantic change. Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete classification was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul. It is based on the logical principle. He distinguishes two main ways where the semantic change is gradual (specialization and generalization), two momentary conscious semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litotes).Specialization is a gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication.Generalization is a process contrary to specialization; in such cases the meaning of a word becomes more general in the course of time.Metaphor is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison. Herman Paul points out that metaphor can be based on different types of similarity:a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage);b) similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain);c) similarity of function, behaviour e.g. a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the voting);d) similarity of colour, e.g. orange, chestnut.Metonymy is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. Types of metonymy:a) the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object, e.g. a glass, iron;b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House - members of Parliament;c) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. the violin;d) the name of some person may become a common noun, «sandwich» was named after Lord Sandwich who was a gambler.e) names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented, e.g. «watt», «rentgen».f) some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. holland (linen fabrics)..Elevation a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time, e.g. «knight» originally meant «a boy», then «a young servant», then «a military servant», then «a noble man». Now it is a title of nobility given to outstanding people.Degradation a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time. It is usually connected with nouns denoting common people, e.g. «villain» originally meant «working on a villa» now it means «a scoundrel».Hyperbole is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration,e.g. «to hate»(doing something), (not to see somebody) «for ages».Litotes is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker expresses affirmative with the negative or vice versa, e.g. not bad, no coward.

21.Semantic classification of the English vocabulary. 1 Classification into monosemantic and polysemantic words is based on the number of meanings the word possesses.2 More detailed semantic classifications are generally based on the semantic similarity. 3 Words may be classified according to the concepts underlying their meaning. This classification is closely connected with the theory of conceptual or semantic fields. By the term “semantic fields” we understand closely knit sectors of vocabulary each characterised by a common concept(blue, red, yellow, black, etc. may be described as making up the semantic field of colours). The members of the semantic fields are not synonyms but all of them are joined together by some common semantic component — the concept of colours. 4 Another approach to the classification of vocabulary items into lexico-semantic groups is the study of hyponymic relations between words. By hyponymy is meant a semantic relationship of inclusion(vehicle includes car, bus, taxi). Thus the hyponymic relationship may be viewed as the hierarchical relationship between the meaning of the general and the individual terms. It is of importance to note that in such hierarchical structures certain words may be both classifiers and members of the groups. Another way to describe hyponymy is in terms of genus and differentia.

The more specific term is called the hyponym of the more general, and the more general is called the hyperonym or the classifier. Hyponymic classification may be viewed as objectively reflecting the structure of vocabulary and is considered by many linguists as one of the most important principles for the description of meaning.

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