II. Material to be read for the seminar. The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action

The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. The general categorical meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time. This general processual meaning is embedded in the semantics of all the verbs, including those that denote states, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluation, etc., rather than actions. The processual categorical meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combination with a noun expressing both the doer of the action (its subject) and, in cases of the objective verb, the recipient of the action (its object), it also determines its combination with an adverb as the modifier of the action.

Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality [1, p. 85]. On the other hand, the system of the English verb includes such widely differing subclasses as finite and non-finite forms of the verb.

Morphological composition of English verbs. In accordance with their stem-structure verbs fall under the following groups: simple, derived, compound and phrasal.

1. Simple verbs are root words, they include neither prefixes nor suffixes in their morphemic structure (e.g. go, run, speak, come, take, read). The original simple verb stems are not numerous, but conversion (zero-suffixation) as means of derivation, especially conversion of the “noun-verb” type, greatly enlarges the simple set of verbs, since it is one of the most productive ways of forming verb lexemes in Modern English (e.g. a cloud – to cloud, a house – to house, a park – to park, an elbow – to elbow).

2. Compound verbs are verbs which consist of two stems (e.g. blackmail, daydream, browbeat, broadcast, whitewash). Composition is of a low productivity in the class of verbs.

3. Derived verbs are verbs which contain suffixes or prefixes in their derivational structure. The typical suffixes expanding the stem of the verb are: -ate (cultivate), -en (broaden), -ify (clarify), -ize (normalize). The verb-deriving prefixes of the inter-class type are: be- (belitle, befriend) and en-/em- (engulf, embed). Some other characteristic verbal prefixes are: re- (remake, reread), under- (undergo, underline), over- (overestimate, overdo), mis- (misunderstand, mispronounce), un- (undo, unfasten), dis- (disagree, disconnect), etc.

4. Phrasal verb stems occupy an intermediary position between analytical forms of the verb and syntactic word combinations [1, p.88]. Among such stems two specific constructions should be mentioned. The first is a combination of the head-verb have, give, pay, take and occasionally some others with a noun; the combination has as its equivalent an ordinary verb (e.g. to have a smoke – to smoke, to give a smile – to smile, to take a stroll – to stroll, to pay a visit – to visit).

The second construction is a combination of a head-verb with a verbal postposition. This construction can be of two types: a) the construction in which a postposition changes the meaning of the verb with which it is associated. The meaning of such composite verbs is different from the meaning of their components (e.g. to give in, to give up, to bring up, to look for, to take in); b) the construction in which a postposition (a preposition or an adverb) does not change the original meaning of its components, i.e. the original meaning of the components, which make up phrasal verbs, is preserved (e.g. stand up, put on, go out, come in, run into).

Principles of classification of verbs in English. Verbs in English may be classified according to different principles:

1. According to the ways of forming the Past Indefinite and Past Participle verbs are divided into regular and irregular.

2. According to their meaning and syntactical functions verbs may be divided into three classes: notional (повнозначні), semi-auxiliary (службові) and auxiliary (допоміжні).

Notional verbs are verbs which have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independed function in the sentence. They are used as verbal predicates and express actions or states of the person or thing denoted by the subject (e.g. Shewent down the river bank and stood gazing at a moonsbreak on the darkening water (Galsworthy).

Semi-auxiliary verbs have no independent meaning and consequently no independent function in the sentence. They are used as part of a predicate (nominal or verbal). The main lexical meaning is comprised in the second component of the predicate which is expressed by a noun, adjective or verbal. However, the semi-auxiliary verb has an important syntactical function: it is used in a finite form and expresses the predicative categories of person, number, mood and tense [2, p. 121].

A semi-auxiliary verb may be used:

a) as a link verb in a compound nominal predicate (to be, to become, to remain, to appear, to seem, to grow, etc.). E.g. Charles Dickens is a famous English writer. The path grew steep. He did not seem in the least tired.

b) as part of a compound verbal predicate expressing either supposition, assurance, ability, obligation, etc. (modal verbs, also to be and to have used as modal equivalents, and such verbs as to intend, to want, etc.) or the beginning, duration, repetition or the end of the action (to begin, to go on, to continue, to stop, etc.). E.g. I wanted to tell her of the incident (Cronin). Peggolty continued to stand motionless in the middle of the room… (Dickens).

Auxiliary verbs are those which have no lexical meaning of their own and are used as form-words, thus having only a purely structural function in the sentence. They are used accompanied by notional verbs. Here belong such verbs as do, did, will, shall, have, had, etc.

3. According to the association with the subject and object verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs are verbs which require an object, direct, indirect or prepositional. The object completes the meaning of the verb and in most cases a transitive verb cannot be used without it. E.g. He gave her his arm and solemnly they went (Galsworthy). She was rather sorry for him (Lawrence). “They will be glad of your company ” (Bronté). Intransitive verbs are those verbs which do not require any object. E.g. George stood for several moments irresolutely on the steps (Aldington). I am doubtful whether I was at heart glad or sorry when my schooldays drew to an end, and the time came for my leaving Doctor Strong’s (Dickens).

4. According to their lexical character verbs in English may be classified into two groups: terminative verbs and durative verbs. A terminative verb expresses an action which has a final aim in view, a certain limit beyond which the action cannot be continued. To the class of terminative verbs belong such verbs as to close, to open, to come, to bring, to settle, to find, to lose, to break. A durative verb expresses an action which has no final aim in view, no limit beyond which the action cannot be continued. To the class of durative verbs belong such verbs as to like, to love, to admire, to hate, to hope, to wish, to want, to sleep, to move, to work, to shine, to watch.

The finite forms of the verb. The verb in the finite form expresses the following categories: person, number, aspect, correlation, tense, voice and mood.

The categories of person and number serve to show the connection between the subject and the predicate of the sentence – the subject agrees with the predicate in person ad number. We find three persons (the first, the second and the third person) and two numbers (the singular and the plural) in finite forms. The category of person is practically represented by two-member opposemes: work – works, am – is. Person opposemes are neutralized when associated with the plural meaning. The category of number shows whether the action is associated with one doer or with more than one. Accordingly it denotes something fundamentally different from what is indicated by the number of nouns. We see here not the “oneness” or “more-than-oneness” of actions, but the connection with the singular or plural doer. The category of number is represented in its purity in the opposeme was – were and accordingly in all analytical forms containing was, were (was writing – were writing; was written – were writeen). In am – are, is – are or am, is – are it is blended with person. Likewise in speaks – speak we actually have the “third person singular” opposed to the non-“third person singular”. Accordingly the category of number is but scantily represented in Modern English.

The category of aspect is a morphological category of the verb denoting the way (aspect) in which the action of the predicate is going on as presented by the speaker. Aspect verbal forms are one of the most important means of expressing the conceptual category of aspectuality. The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposemes such as works – is working, has worked – has been working, to work – to be working showing the character of the action, i.e. whether the action is taken in its progress, in its development or it is simply stated, its nature being unspecified. Thus, in English the verb has two aspect forms: the continuous aspect and the common aspect. The continuous aspect: I am writing, I was writing, I have been writing, etc. The common aspect: I write, I wrote, I have written. The difference between the two forms is not a temporal one, the time indication being the same in both; the forms differ in the manner in which the action is presented. Compare the following: She is writing a letter to her friend now. She often writes letters to her friends.

As the continuous aspect gives the subject only a temporal, limited characteristic through an action going on at the moment of speaking, it is not used with verbs expressing actions or states of unlimited duration, such as to have, to possess, to contain, to want, to desire, etc. which characterize the subject in general and therefore require the common aspect.

The category of tense is a system of three-member opposemes such as writes – wrote – will write, is writing – was writing – will be writing showing the relation of the time of the action denoted by the verb to the moment of speech. The grammatical meaning of “tense” is an abstraction from only three particular tenses: “the present”, “the past” and “the future”. The grammatical indication of time is indirect: it is not time that a verb like asked names but an action that took place before the moment of speech.

The category of correlation is a system of two-member opposemes, such as writes – has written, wrote – had written, writing – having written, to be written – to have been written showing time relation between an action and a certain moment of a certain time plane. Therefore the category of correlation is based on the opposition of the non-perfect forms which denote actions belonging to certain moments of time in the present, past and future and the perfect forms denoting actions which precede certain moments of time in the present, past and future.

The category of voice is a grammatical category which shows whether the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence is the doer or the sufferer of the action expressed by the predicate. Accordingly there are two voices in English – the Active Voice and the Passive Voice. The Active Voice shows that the action is performed by the subject, that the subject is the doer of the action. The Passive Voice shows that the subject is acted upon, that it is the recipient of the action. Compare the following: She had spoiled his life, wounded his pride to death, defrauded him of a son (Galsworthy). I ’vebeen sent for urgently, to get at the truth (Christie). The visitor was allowed to come forward and sit himself (Eliot).

The situation reflected by the passive construction does not differ in the least from the situation reflected by the active construction – the nature of the process is preserved intact, the situational participants remain in their places in their unchanged quality. What is changed, then, with the transition from the active voice to the passive voice, is the subjective appraisal of the situation by the speaker, the plane of his presentation of it.

The category of Mood is a grammatical category which expresses the relation of the action expressed by the verb to reality from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. in what relation to reality the speaker places the action or state expressed by the predicate verb – either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen or treating it as something imaginary, desirable, problematic or contrary to reality. In Modern English there are three moods: the Indicative Mood, the Imperative Mood and the Subjunctive Mood.

The Indicative Mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the categories of the verb. The forms comprised in the Indicative Mood are used to present predication as reality, as a fact. The Indicative Mood serves to present an action as a fact of reality. It conveys minimum personal attitude to the fact. The Indicative Mood shows that the speaker considers the action or state denoted by the predicate as an actual fact and affirms or negates its existence in the present, past and future.

E.g. Bossinney and June entered the theatre in silence and mounted to their seats in the upper boxes (Galsworthy). I shall act and I shall act promptly (Maugham). When they meet, they talk for a long time (Maxwell).

The Indicative Mood is widely used in English. The verb in the Indicative Mood has three primary tenses and three secondary (perfect) tenses, two aspect forms – common and continuous, and two voice forms – active and passive.

The Imperative Mood is used to express a request, a command, an order or a warning. The necessary meaning is generally signalled by the context and intonation. The Imperative Mood proper is used only in the second person singular and plural (e.g. Finish this work today. Listen to your teacher attentively. Give me your pen for a while, please. Don’t cross the street in this place. Don’t allow children to play with matches). A command or request may be addressed to the third person, singular or plural (e.g. Let him come in. Let them discuss this problem at the group meeting. Let them not quarrel over such trifle things) and to the first person plural (e.g. Let’s read this book in the original. Let’s do this task together. Let’s not talk about it today).

The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as something desirable, problematic or contrary to reality. There are four subjunctive moods in Modern English, of which two are synthetical and two analytical. The synthetical moods are: Subjunctive I and Subjunctive II. Theanalytical moods are: the Conditional Mood and the Suppositional Mood. Compare the following examples:

1. Subjunctive I: 1. Ruth had urged that he take a clerk’s position in an office (London). 2. I still suggest you wait (Dreiser). 3. Whoever you be, you have no right to do such a thing. 4. Success attend you! 5. Be it so! 6. Long live the forces of peace!

2. Subjunctive II: 1. If you went in for sports regularly, you would feel better. 2. If she had taken a taxi, she wouldn’t have missed her train. 3. I wish you weremore attentive at your English lessons. 4. Helen looks so sunburnt as if she had spent her holidays at the seaside.

3. The Suppositional Mood: 1. It is desirable that Peter should buy tickets in advance. 2. It is necessary that the doctor should examine the patient carefully to make the correct diagnosis. 3. It is important that you should post your reply to his letter not later than tomorrow. 4. It is desirable that these questions should bediscussed until they return from the expedition.

4. The Conditional Mood: 1. In your place I should keep an eye on the boy. He is too small to be left alone. 2. We wouldn’t have objected to their plan. It was rather good. 3. If they weren’t good friends, he wouldn’t be looking forward so eagerly to seeing them again. 4. If all the questions had been considered at the first session, the resolution would have been passed yesterday.

Thus, the category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality. The category of mood, like the category of voice, differs in principle from the immanent verbal categories of tense, aspect, correlation. While these categories characterize an action from the point of view of its various inherent properties, the category of mood expresses the outer interpretation of the action as a whole, namely, the speaker’s introduction of it as actual or imaginary. Together with the category of voice, the category of mood, not reconstructing the process by way of reflecting its constituent qualities, gives an integrating appraisal of the process and establishes its lingual representation in a syntactic context [1, p. 187].

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