Affixation

The first function of suffixes is to form one part of speech from another. The second functio n is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.

There exist different classifications of suffixes: part of speech classification, semantic classification, lexico-grammatucal character of the stem, origion of affixes, productivity, structure.

According to the part of speech classification, suffixes are divided into:

- noun-forming suffixes: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism),

- adjective-forming suffixes: -able (breathable), -less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious),

- verb-forming suffixes -ize (computerize), -ify (micrify), - en (shorten),

- adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (singly), -ward (tableward), -wise (jetwise),

- numeral-forming suffixes: -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy), -fold (twofold).

Semantic classification arranges suffixes in accordance with the lexical meaning of the stem. For example, noun-forming suffixes can denote:

-the agent of the action: -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student),

-nationality: - ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), - ish (English),

-collectivity: - ry (peasantry), -ship (readership), - ati (literati),

-diminutiveness: -ie (horsie), -ling (gooseling), -y (hanky) etc.

Classification of suffixes according to lexico-grammatical character of the stem supposes that suffixes can be added to certain groups of stems:

-suffixes added to verbal stems: -er (commuter), -able (flyable), -ing (suffering),

-suffixes added to noun stems: -ess (smogless), -ful (roomful), -nik (filmnik),

-suffixes added to adjective stems: -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).

Classification of suffixes according to their origin allows to distinguish:

-native (Germanic) suffixes: -er (teacher), -ed (talented), -teen (sixteen),

-Romanic suffixes: -age (carriage), -ment (development), -ate (dictate),

-Greek suffixes: -ize (organize), - ism (capitalism), -ist (racist) etc.

The term borrowed affixes is not very exact as affixes are never borrowed as suffixes, but only as parts of borrowed words. To enter the morphological system of the English language a borrowed affix, both a suffix and a prefix, must satisfy certain conditions. The borrowing of an affix is possible only:

-if the the number of words containing this affix is considerable,

-if its meaning and function are definite and clear,

-if its structural pattern corresponds to the structural patterns already existing in the language.

Productivity classification of affixes points out the following groups:

-productive: -ly (wetly), -ize (specialize), -er (dancer),

-semi-productive: -eer (profiteer), -ward (skyward), -ette (kitchenette),

-non-productive: -ard (drunkard), -th (length) etc.

According to the structure suffixes are divided into:

-simple: -er (speaker), -ist (dramatist),

compound: -ical (ironical), -ation (formation), -manship (sportsmanship), -ably / ibly (terribly, reasonably) etc.

Some suffixes can be polysemantic. For example, -er can form nouns with the following meanings: an agent or a doer of the action expressed by the stem (porter), a profession or an occupation (baker), a device or a tool (transmitter).

There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root in the structure of a word. In such cases these disputable morphemes are called semi-affixes. Words with semi-affixes can be classified either as affixed words or as compound words. For example: -gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic), -man (postman) etc.

Prefixation

Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs.

Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes, they are bound morphemes: unhappy, rewrite, antiwar etc. Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words: overhead – over the table.

The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But some prefixes can form one part of speech from another. They are en / em-, a-, pre-, non-, anti- etc. For example the prefix be- forms verbs with adjective stems, and noun stems: to belittle, to befriend, to bemadam.

Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:

1. Semantic classification:

-prefixes of negative meaning: in- (invaluable), non- (non-person, non-book, nonformal), un- (unfree),

-prefixes denoting repetition or reversative actions: de- (decolonize), dis-(disconnect), un- (unpack),

-prefixes denoting time, space, degree: inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension), pre- (preelection), ex- (ex-student) etc.

2. Origin of prefixes:

-native (Germanic): under- (undernourish), over- (overfeed),

-Romanic: in- (inactive), de- (demobilize), re- (redo),

-Greek: sym- (sympathy), hyper- (hypertension) etc.

When we analyze such words as adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word verb, company, we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as affixed words. But some scientists treat them as simple words.

Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as contain, retain, detain or conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that con- and de- act as prefixes and tain-, ceive- can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as affixed words.

There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists. For example after- in the word afternoon. American lexicographers treat such words as compound words, British lexicographers treat them as affixed ones.

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