LOUDNESS IN THE ARC OF LOUDNESS THEORY

Loudness is a powerful stimulus on the ear. It's based on the amplitude of vibrations and respiration.

A syllable could be defined auditorily by counting peaks of audibility, that is “arcs” of loudness (the latter actually depends on muscular tension or articulatory effort). The energy increases within the range of prevocalic consonants, and decreases with the range of postvocalic => the syllable can be defined as an arc of articulatory theory.

The “arc of loudness” or “arc of articulatory tension” theory is based on L.V.Shcherba’s statement that the centre of a syllable is the syllable-forming phoneme. Sounds which precede or follow it constitute a chain, or an arc, which is weak in the beginning and in the end and strong in the middle.

If a syllable consists of a vowel, its strength increases in the beginning, reaches the maximum of loudness and then, gradually decreases. Graphically it can be represented by an arc of loudness or an arc of articulatory tension.

Consonants within a syllable are characterized by different distribution of muscular tension. Shcherba distinguishes the following types of consonants:

• finally strong (initially weak), they occur at the beginning of the syllable;
• finally weak (initially strong), they occur at the end of a closed syllable;
• double peaked (combination of 2 similar sounds): in their articulation the beginning and the end are energetic and the middle is weak. Acoustically they produce an impression of 2 consonants: /'pen 'naIf/, /'gud'deI/

For example, in the word “cab” the consonant /k/, that begins the syllable, is “finally strong”, that is its articulatory strength increases to the end of /k/ (it is also initially weak). This consonant begins “the arc of loudness”.

In the word “cab” the final consonant /b/, that ends the syllable, is “finally weak”, that is its articulatory strength decreases to the end of /b/. This consonant terminates the “arc of loudness”, or the arc of muscular tension.

In terms of the “arc of loudness” theory there are as many syllables in a word as there are “arcs of loudness” and the point of syllable division corresponds to the moment, when the arc of loudness begins or ends, that is: initially weak consonants begin a syllable, finally weak end it. (Finally strong consonants begin a syllable, initially strong end it). For example, the word “mistake” consists of 2 arcs of loudness in which /m/ and /t/ are finally strong consonants and /s/ and /k/ are finally weak. /s/ constitutes the end of “the arc of loudness”, /t/ constitutes the beginning.

39. THE FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION
Generally speaking, intonation helps us to determine meaning, gives clues about the attitude of the speaker, and how he feels about what he is saying. It indicates what shared knowledge between speakers is, and hwat new information is.
It serves as a communicative function and under this structure is SERVES:
1) - to structure the information content (new, old, necessary)
- to determine a speech function of a phrase, to indicate whether it's intended as a statement, question, command.
- to convey connotational meanings of 'attitude'
- to structure a text - it both deliminates and integrates text
- to differenciate the meanings of textual units and give stylistic function.
2) Constituence Words, phrases, overtonal frequency, intensity, duration, which altogether constitute intonation in the broader sense, are communuatively irrelevant. E.g. 'go'
Thus intonation coupled with the proper choice of words and grammatical structure in the main constituent feature, not only oral speech but written language.
3) Integrating function. Constitutive tying the major parts, together within the phrase and tying phrases together within the text and + the proper choice of words. It is one of the means that fullfills this connection or integrating function.
4) Distinctive. The distinctive function is realized in the oppositions of the same word sequences which differ, in certain parameters of the intonation patterns.
5) Distinctive - Intonation pattern makes their distinction, contribution at intonation group, phrases of text levels.
'If \ Mary /comes | let me know at once.' (no one but Mary)
Or 'I enjoyed it'. - 'I en \ joyed / it' (could be better)
6) the constitutive function of the pitch component of intonation throughout the whole sentence manifests itself that each syllable in it has a certain pitch and cannot exist without it. Simultaneously, this constitutive function manifests itself in the deliminative function, both within a sentence and its end.
7) Deliminative function consists of delimiting from each other the portions of a sentence which are known as sence groups, breath groups and intonation groups.

Breath groups - denote a complete sentence that can conveniently be said within a single breath. It usually coinsides with a sense group, as pauses for breath are usually made where pauses are necessarily or allowable from the point of view of meaning.

Intonation group is actually realized unit division of a sentence to a sense groups.

American descriptivists use the term 'clause' to describe both an actual sense group and a single sense group. A change in pitch between the 2 is called terminal tone sense group.
Clause - terminal.
In RP these terminal tones are \ / and /\ \/

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