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The theory of oppositions. Types of opposition in morphology

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Paradigmatic correlations are exposed by “oppositions” of grammatical forms - the members of a paradigm. Oppositions are analyzed linguistically with the help of a special method known as “oppositional analysis”.

Opposition members are characterized by two types of features: common features and differential features.

Common features serve as the basis for uniting the grammatical forms within the same paradigm. In the example, cat and cats, the two forms are paradigmatically united as forms of one and the same word, sharing the categorical grammatical meaning of number. Differentialfeatures serve to differentiate the members of an opposition. For example, the grammatical form of the plural, cats, has an inflection, or a grammatical suffix, which the form of the singular, cat, has not.

On the basis of various combinations of common and differential features, several types of oppositions are distinguished.

The prevalent (преобладающий) type in English grammar is a binary privative opposition.

The term “ binary ” means, that the opposition consists of two members, or forms. Besides binary oppositions, there are oppositions, that may include more than two members (“ternary”, “quaternary” and so on).

The term “ privative ” means that the members of the opposition are characterized by the presence/absence of a certain differential feature, which serves as the formal mark of one of its members.

In the example above, cat – cats, the ending of the plural is its formal mark. The member of the opposition characterized by the presence of the differential mark is called “marked”, or “positive”. The other member of the opposition, characterized by the absence of the differential feature, is called “ unmarked ”, or “ negative ”.

Oppositions can be 3 types:

Private (privative) (always binary in strucrure): sing(-) pl(+); active(-) passive(+)

Gradual (al the member are marked) clever-cleverer –the cleverest

Equipollent (равнозначный, равноценный) (each member is marked by its own specific feature) present –s; past- ed; future- will

The binary privative opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature (strong, marked, positive), while the other member is characterized by the absence of the feature (weak, unmarked, negative). Eg.

voiced vs. devoiced consonants The gradual opposition is formed by a contrastive group of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of a feature, but by the degree of it.

8 (Eg. [ï: - i – e - ae] form a quaternary opposition by the degree of their openness)

The equipollent opposition is formed by a contrastive pair or group in which the members are distinguished by different positive features. (eg. [m] – [b], both bilabial consonants, form an equipollent opposition, [m] being sonorous nasalized, [b] being plosive.)

 
Theoretical Grammar is a section of linguistics that studies grammar system of language. Grammar system of language refers to the whole complex of conformities to natural laws where the latter defines ways of words’ alterations and also ways of word combinations in phrases and sentences. As any complex object Grammar is a complex system that is presented by elements and structure in their mutually dependent organization. Grammar elements refer to morphemes, words, word-combinations and sentences. Grammar structure implies relations and connections among grammar elements or inner organization of the language grammar system. The subjectof English Theoretical Grammar refers to the study of the English Language grammar organization as a system parts of which are mutually connected with definite relations of different types of complexity (complication, complicacy). The main taskof Theoretical Grammar is an adequate systematic (methodic) description of language facts and also their theoretical interpretation. The difference between Practical and Theoretical Grammar refers to the following peculiarities: Practical Grammar prescribes definite rules for the use of a language (gives instructions for the use of language data, teaches how to speak and write); Theoretical Grammar analyzes language data, interprets that, expounds the data but does not give instructions as for the use of them.     To the main notions in the study of Theoretical Grammar the following ones are included: grammatical category; grammatical form and grammatical meaning. Grammatical Meaning differs from Lexical Meaning. The latter implies an idea or a sense that a word represents. Grammar Meaning also implies an idea or a sense but they (idea\sense) are peculiar to a class of words but not to a single word; they are united by a general propriety of the class of words. Thus, Grammatical Meaning is a generalized or abstract propriety of a class of words and unites big groups of classes of words. For instance:
Class of words Proprieties
The Noun to present objects or things (abstract or concrete).  
The Verb to express action.  
The Adjective to show a sign or a quality of an object or a thing.

 
Language level language unit & function
phonological phoneme- a distinctive unit (distinguish words [lit- lid])
Morphological morpheme- a minimal meaningful unit(re-, -er,-s)
Lexical lexeme (word)- a minimal naming (nominative) unit
Syntactic superphrasemic phrasemic sentence – a minimal communitive unit
the word group- a dependent syntactic unit
 
Sypersyntactic text- the informative unit

· Development of Grammar theory

Emotion of grammar theory.

1) Classical grammar (ancient time- 1840-1850)

2) Historical- comparative grammar (1850- beg. Of the 20th century)

3) Generative- transformational grammar (since 50-s)

4) Semantic trends in grammar (since 60-s- 70-s)

5) Text (textual) grammar (since the 60-s)

6) Functional grammar (pragmatics) (since the 70-s- 80-s)

 

 Sound alternation is very popular in Germanic languages- it is used mostly in nouns and There are 3 types of it:vowel (tooth- teeth); conson (build-built); mixed types (bring- brought). Analytical forms have 2 or more elements but they all make one word .(is reading,has been done,will have been done.) Only one lexical meaning is present here and it is expressed in the final component. Such forms use grammatical elements that are called-auxiliary verbs. Such mechanism is typical of analytical languages. In English passive,continuous,perfect,future,suppositional and conditional moods are formed only analytically. Syntactical languages use such forms very seldom. In Russian only future (будучитать) degreeof compression (болееумный,самыйумный) passive forms are expressed analitically. Grammatical category are divided accordingto 4 principles. a) The first is related to extra linguistic phenomena(reality).If we find such link so the category can be logically explained and in this case it is called formal-logical(any real action can be part, present or future). The category of tense is a logical category or number of nouns is a logically category or (clever-cleverer-cleverest). If some grammatical category is used not logically but for the sake of words.(case category)-formal proper(=reflective)   b)fixed-constant(=classifying) A fixed category demands that the word in all its forms always preserves this category(e.g. -gender of motor in russian declination (склонение), conjugation (спряжение),) Changeable category are those that are reveled only in some forms (case and number)   c)overt-covert(cryptotypes) Overt categories are always expressed formally in this or that way. Covert category also have some definite grammatical meaning but it is expressed not morphologically. (in English there is a special class of functional words to denote the meaning of definiteness)indefiniteness this means that in English nouns have this category as an overt one. In languages where articles are not used the same meaning definite (indefinite)can be expressed lexically (different pronouns тотсамый,этот)syntactically (самолетприлетел. Прилетелсамолёт)but not morphologically. The category definite (indefinite) is covered (transitivity of verbs)   c)1.Morphological (referring to part of speech: number,tense,degree of comparison,etc) 2.Syntactic(transitivity(intransitivity)coordinativity(subordinativity)predicativity(modality)   Parts of speech classification. The problem of parts of speech classification is rather ancient because the first attempts to divide words were made in ancient home and Greece. Аристотельsingled out 4 groups of words:l)thename 2)the verb 3)the participle 4)the link later in Alexsandry 8 classesand this tradition was bond to the Latinlanguage and from it this division languages: l)noun2)the verb 3)the pronoun 4)participle 5)adverb 6)preposition 7)conjunction8)interjection.Theterm part of speech is rather convectionaland it docs not the linguistic phenomenoncorrectly Classification of words into classes is based on 3 criteria: l)semantic 2)formal(morphological)3)fictional At the beginning of the 20th century descriptivists added the 4th criteria-distributionthe firstsemantic criteria is connected with the general category meaning of a whole part ofspeech. Substantively fornouns process for verbs quality for adjectives. The formal criteria isconnected with ways of formbuilding and with grammar categories of this part of speech.The functional criteria is based on syntactic roles of the word in the sentence. It means thatdifferent part of speech have a definite number of functions (e.g. Noun-subject or object) theforth distributional criteria describes each part of speech from the view point of its environment.In fact none of these criteria is absolute because each of them works not for all parts of speech (e.g. Among nouns we find words whose categorical meaning is equalities) (e.g. Depth,whiteness, mind, reading) but still such words are also refereed to nouns on the basic of the restcriteria. They change forms and function as typical nouns. Some nouns are not changeable andthey behave like functional words but they function as nouns (метро.какаду)- this words can notbe characterized. Functions and distribution can not be regarded as absolute criteria eitherbecause the same part of speech have several functions which at the same time can be fulfilledbywords of other speech. The list of possible neighbors is also rather wide and veryoften it isthe same. Conclusion.This situation demands that we should rely upon all the criteria he necessary an only all the in this case the states of the word can be identified correctly.    

 


 


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