THE NOTION OF LEXICAL SYSTEM

In contrast to grammar, the vocabulary of a language is not systematic but chaotic. In the light of recent investigations in linguistic theory, however, we are now in a position to bring some order into this “chaos”. Lexicology studies the recurrent patterns of semantic relationships, and of any formal phonological, morphological or contextual means by which they may be rendered. It aims at systematisation. The Soviet scholars are now approaching a satisfactory solution based on Marxist dialectics and its teaching of the general interrelation and interdependence of phenomena in nature and society. The term system as used in present-day lexicology denotes not merely the sum total of English words, it denotes a set of elements associated and functioning together according to certain laws. The vocabulary of a language is moreover an adaptive system constantly adjusting itself to the changing requirements and conditions of human communications and cultural surroundings. A set is described in the abstract set theory as a collection of definite distinct objects to be conceived as a whole. A set is said to be a collection of distinct elements, because a certain object may be distinguished from the other elements in a set, but there is no possibility of its repeated appearance. In a classical set theory the elements are said to be definite because with respect to any of them it should be definite whether it belongs to a given set or not. The lexical system of every epoch contains productive elements typical of this particular period, others that are obsolete and dropping out of usage, and, finally, some new phenomena, significant marks of new trends for the epochs to come. The theory of reflection as developed by V.I. Lenin is our methodological basis, it teaches that objective reality is approximately but correctly reflected in the human mind. The notions rendered in the meanings of the words are generalised reflections of real objects and phenomena. Equivalence is the relation between two elements based on the common feature due to which they belong to the same set. Its elements are characterised by their combinatorial and contrastive properties determining their syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships. A word enters into syntagmatic (linear) combinatorial relationships with other lexical units that can form its context, serving to identify and distinguish its meaning. Lexical units are known to be context-dependent. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic studies of meaning are functional because the meaning of the lexical unit is studied first not through its relation to referent but through its functions in relation to other units. Theory of nomination, in which meaning is studied as the interdependence between words and their referents, that is things or concepts they name, i.e. various names given to the same sense. The study of the lexical system must also include the study of the words’ combinatorial possibilities •— their capacity to combine with one another in groups of certain patterns, which serve to identify meanings.

4. The term motivation is used to denote the relationship existing between the phonemic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand and its meaning on the other. There are three main types of motivation: 1) phonetical2) morphological 3) semantic 1. Phonetical motivation is used when there there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word. For example: buzz, cuckoo, gigle. The sounds of a word are imitative of sounds in nature, or smth. that produces a characteristic sound. This type of motivation is determined by the phonological system of each language. 2. Morphological motivation – the relationship between morphemic stucture and meaning. The main criterion in morphological motivation is the relationship between morphemes. One-morphemed words are non-motivated. Ex- means “former” when we talk about humans ex-wife, ex-president. Re- means “again”: rebuild, rewrite. In borowed words motivation is faded: “ expect, export, recover (get better)”. Morphological motivation is especially obvious in newly coined words, or in the words created in this century. In older words motivation is established etymologically. The structure-pattern of the word is very important too: “finger-ring” and “ring-finger”. Though combined lexical meaning is the same. The difference of meaning can be explained by the arrangement of the components. Morphological motivation has some irregularities: “smok er” – si not “the one who smokes”, it is “a railway car in which passenger may smoke”. The degree of motivation can be different: “endless” is completely motivated “cranberry” is partially motivated: morpheme “cran-” has no lexical meaning. 3. Semantic motivation is based on the co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word within the same synchronous system. “Mouth” denotes a part of the human face and at the same time it can be applied to any opening: “the mouth of a river”. “Ermine” is not only the anme of a small animal, but also a fur. In their direct meaning “mouth” and “ermine” are not motivated. In compound words it is morphological motivation when the meaning of the whole word is based on direct meanings of its components and semantic motivation is when combination of components is used figuratively. For example “headache” is “pain in the head” (morphological) and “smth. annoying” (sematic). When the connection between the meaning of the word and its form is conventional (there is no perceptible reason for the word having this phonemic and morphemic composition) the word is non-motivated (for the present state of language development). Words that seem non-motivated now may have lost their motivation: “earn” is derived from “earnian – to harvest”, but now this word is non-motivated. Motivation may be faded when not every person can see it. Motivation denotes the relationship between the phonemic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other. 1) morphological motivation implies a direct connection between the morphological structure of the word and its meaning.. One-morpheme words (sing, tell) are non-motivated. The meaning of words composed of more then one morpheme is the combined meaning of the morphemes and the meaning of the structural pattern of the word itself. Ex.: finger-ring (кольцо, которое носят на пальце руки) and ring –finger (палец, на котором носят обручальное кольцо) – the morphemes are phonetically identical with identical lexical meaning. The difference in the meaning can be accounted for by the difference in the arrangement of the component morphemes. If we can observe a direct connection between the structural pattern of the word (порядок морфем в слове) and its meaning we say that this word is motivated. a) singer; b) rewrite – are motivated by the morphemes they contain (a) process – doer; b) to do smth again – process) If the connection between the structure of the lexical unit and its meaning is common or conventional, the word is non-motivated: matter, repeat Morph. mot. is relative. The degree of motivation varies from complete motivation to lack of motivation with various grades of partial motivation. (endless - completely motivated (lexically and structurally); cranberry – partially (there is no lexical meaning of the morpheme cran-) 2) phonetic motivation is a direct connection between the phonetical structure the word and its meaning. Swish, sizzle, boom, splash –are a direct imitation of of the sounds these word denote. 3) semantic motivation is based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word. Mouth – a part of the human face, but at the same time it can be applied to any opening or outlet: the mouth of a river, of cave. Jacket is a short coat and also a protective cover for a book.. As to compounds, their motivation is morphological if the meaning of the whole is based on the direct meaning of the components, and semantic if the combination is used figuratively: watchdog – a dog kept for watching property (morphologically motivated); - a watchful human guardian (semantically motivated) Every vocabulary is in a state of constant development. Words that seem non-motivated at present may have lost their motivation. When some people recognize the motivation, whereas others do not, motivation is said to be faded. Semantically all word-groups may be classified into motivated and non-motivated. Non-motivated word-groups are usually described as phraseological units or idioms. Word-groups may be described as lexically motivated if the combined lexical meaning of the groups is based on the meaning of their components. Thus take lessons is motivated; take place — ‘ occur’ is lexically non-motivated. Word-groups are said to be structurally motivated if the meaning of the pattern is deduced from the order and arrangement of the member-words of the group. Red flower is motivated as the meaning of the pattern quality — substance can be deduced from the order and arrangement of the words red and flower, whereas the seemingly identical pattern red tape (‘ official bureaucratic methods’)cannot be interpreted as quality — substance. Seemingly identical word-groups are sometimes found to be motivated or non-motivated depending on their semantic interpretation. Thus apple sauce, e.g., is lexically and structurally motivated when it means ‘a sauce made of apples’ but when used to denote ‘nonsense’ it is clearly non-motivated.

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