Identify which stylistic device is used in the following examples: Personality is to a man what perfume is to a flower. (Charles Schwab). My friend is as good as gold

Answer: Simile (lexical st device)

How do we call a device whereby an affirmation is expressed by denying its contrary? Litotes - is a device whereby an affirmation is expressed by denying its contrary. Usually litotes presupposes double negation - one through a negative particle (no, not), the other - through a word with negative meaning. Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling. It's not a bad thing - It's a good thing. He is no coward. He is a brave man. He was not without taste. They are used to weaken the positive characteristics of a thing or phenomenon. The obligatory presence of the particle “not” makes the statement less categorical and conveys certain doubts of the speaker as to the quality he mentions. The final result of litotes is always the assertion of a positive, though weakened quality or characteristics. She said it, but not impatiently.

What is epiphora? epiphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of a sentence in quick succession. For example, “In a desert land he found him; And in the waste howling wilderness, about, he led him; He instructed him; As the apple of His eye He kept him” (Bible). This is an epiphora. Although, a major function of epiphora is to highlight the idea or thought, apart from that, it creates an artistic impact in a poem or a prose work. The presence of epiphora in literature makes the work more appealing and attracts the readers’ attention to the rhythmical effect its presence creates. It is because this emphasis on an idea allows the readers to remember and understand it easily and evoke their emotions. “She’s safe, just like I promised. She’s all set to marry Norrington, just like she promised. And you get to die for her, just like you promised.” (Jack Sparrow, “Pirates of the Caribbean” film) Here Jack Sparrow plays on the word “promise” to emphasize his point.

What is an essay? An essay is a piece of writing that methodically analyses and evaluates a topic or issue. Fundamentally, an essay is designed to get your academic opinion on a particular matter. An essay is a piece of writing, usually from an author's personal point of view. Essays are non-fictional but often subjective; while expository, they can also include narrative. Essays can be literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. Many students' first exposure to the genre is the five paragraph essay, a highly structured form requiring an introduction presenting the thesis statement; three body paragraphs, each of which presents an idea to support the thesis together with supporting evidence and quotations; and a conclusion, which restates the thesis and summarizes the supporting points.

What is slang? A type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular context or group of people: ‘grass is slang for marijuana’. Slang consists of a lexicon of non-standard words and phrases in a given language. Use of these words and phrases is typically associated with the subversion of a standard variety (such as Standard English) and is likely to be interpreted by listeners as implying particular attitudes on the part of the speaker. In some contexts a speaker's selection of slang words or phrases may convey prestige, indicating group membership or distinguishing group members from those who are not a part of the group.

What is drama?, the word drama defines a genre, or style of writing. Drama is a play that can be performed for theatre, radio or even television. These plays are usually written out as a script, or a written version of a play that is read by the actors but not the audience. Drama is now commonly used to refer to a genre of film or television which is more serious than comedy. The term comes from a Greek word meaning action (Classical Greek: δρᾶμα, drama), which is derived from the verb meaning to do or to act

How do we call a combination of speech sounds which alms at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.) by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (singing, laughter) and animals. Onomatopoeia. Common occurrences of onomatopoeias include animal noises such as "oink", "miaow" (or "meow"), "roar" or "chirp". Some other very common English-language examples include hiccup, zoom, bang, beep, moo, and splash. Machines and their sounds are also often described with onomatopoeia, as in honk or beep-beep for the horn of an automobile, and vroom or brum for the engine. When someone speaks of a mishap involving an audible arcing of electricity, the word "zap" is often used (and has subsequently been expanded and used to describe non-auditory effects generally connoting the same sort of localized but thorough interference or destruction similar to that produced in short-circuit sparking).For animal sounds, words like quack (duck), moo (cow), bark or woof (dog), roar (lion), meow/miaow or purr (cat), cluck (chicken) and baa (sheep) are typically used in English. Some of these words are used both as nouns and as verbs.

What is oxymoron? An oxymoron (plural oxymora or oxymorons) is a figure of speech that juxtaposes elements that appear to be contradictory. Oxymora appear in a variety of contexts, including inadvertent errors (such as "ground pilot") and literary oxymorons crafted to reveal a paradox. One famous oxymoron is the phrase "the same difference." This phrase qualifies as an oxymoron because the words "same" and "difference" have completely opposite meanings. Therefore, bringing them together into one phrase produces a verbally puzzling, yet engaging, effect. Whether you know it or not, you have probably used some, or at least heard, some oxymorons in your every day life.Great Depression - Jumbo shrimp - Cruel to be kind - Pain for pleasure

What is a quotation? a phrase or short piece of writing taken from a longer work of literature, poetry, etc. Quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by the way of illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter. By repeating the utterance in a new environment, we attach to the utterance an importance.

Tell about Gap - sentence – link. The Gap-Sentence Link (GSL) is a peculiar type of connection of sentences in which the connection is not immediately seen and it requires an effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they are in Italy.(It means-Those who ought to be the sufferers are enjoying themselves in Italy where well-to-do English people go for holiday.) The Gap-Sentence Link is generally indicated by and or but. The functions of GSL are the following: 1) it signals the introduction of inner represented speech; 2) it indicates a subjective evaluation of the facts 3) it displays an unexpected coupling of ideas. The Gap-Sentence Link aims at stirring up in the reader’s mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence can exist.

Name the substyles of Publicistic Functional Style. A functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. In the English literary standard Galperin distinguishes the following major functional styles (FS): belles-lettres; publicistic literature; newspaper; scientific prose; official documents. The publicistic FS comprises the following substyles: style of essays; of oratory; of feature articles in newspapers and journals. 1. Oratory and speeches. Oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the PS. Direct contact with the listeners permits the combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. Certain typical features of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are: direct address to the audience (ladies and gentlemen, honorable member(s), the use of the 2^nd person pronoun you, etc.), sometimes contractions (I’ll, won’t) and the use of colloquial words. Repetition, parallel constructions, antithesis, suspense, climax, rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative. 2. The essay. The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. Personality in the treatment of theme and naturalness of expression are 2 of the most obvious characteristics of the essay. An essay is rather a series of comments than a conclusive argument. Feature articles are generally published in newspapers, especially weeklies and Sunday editions. In comparison with oratorical style, the essay aims at a more lasting, hence at a slower effect. 3. Articles. Irrespective of the character of the magazine and the divergence of subject matter – whether it is political, literary, popular-scientific or satirical, all the features of publistic style are to be found in any article. The character of the magazine as well as the subject chosen affects the choice and use of stylistic devices.

What is Emotive connotations? Emotive connotations express various feelings оr emotions. Еmоtions differ from feelings. Emotions like joy, disappointment, pleasure, anger, worry, surprise are mоrе short-lived. Feelings imply а more stable state, or attitude, such as love, hatred, respect, pride, dignity, etc. The emotive component of meaning mау bе occasional от usual (i.е. inherent and adherent). It is important to distinguish words with emotive connotations from words, describing or naming emotions and feelings like anger оr fеаr, because the latter аrе а special vocabulary subgroup whose denotative meanings аrе emotions. They do not connote the speaker's state of mind оr his emotional attitude to the subject of speech.

Comment on the adjective and its stylistic functions. The only grammatical category of the Enghsh adjective today is that of comparison. Comparison is only the property of qualitative and quantitative adjectives, but not of the relative ones. When adjectives that are not normally used in a comparative degree are used with this category they are charged with a strong expressive power. Mrs. Thompson, Old Man Fellow's housekeeper had found him deader than a doornail... (Mangum) This is a vivid example of a grammatical transposition of the second type built on the incongruity of the lexical and grammatical meanings. In the following example the unexpected superlative adjective degree forms lend the sentence a certain rhythm and make it even more expressive:...fifteen millions of workers, understood to be the strangest, the cun-ningest, the willingest our Earth ever had. (Skrebnev) The commercial functional style makes a wide use of the violation of grammatical norms to captivate the reader's attention: The orangemostest drink in the world. The transposition of other parts of speech into the adjective creates stylistically marked pieces of description as in the following sentence: A camouflage of general suffuse and dirty-jeaned drabness covers everybody and we merge into the background. (Marshall) The use of comparative or superlative forms with other parts of speech may also convey a humorous colouring: He was the most married man I've ever met. (Arnold) Another stylistic aspect of the adjective comes to the fore when an adjective gets substantivized and acquires the qualities of a noun such as "solid, firm, tangible, hard," etc. All Europe was in arms, and England would join. The impossible had happened. (Aldington) The stylistic function of the adjective is achieved through the deviant use of the degrees of comparison that results mostly in grammatical metaphors of the second type (lexical and grammatical incongruity). The same effect is also caused by the substantivized use of the adjectives.

Comment on the Syntagmatic syntax? syntagmatic structure in a language is the combination of words according to the rules of syntax for that language. For example English uses determiner + adjective + noun, e.g. the big house. Another language might use determiner + noun + adjective (Spanish la casa grande) and therefore have a different syntagmatic structure. Syntagmatic - pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that occur sequentially in the chain of speech or writing, as the relationship between the sun and is shining or the and sun in the sentence The sun is shining.

How many types interaction I.R. Galperin singles out? Name them. I.R. Galperin distinguishes five major functional styles in the English literary standards. They are: 1) The language of belles-letres. 2) The language of publicistic literature. 3) The language of newspapers. 4) The language of scientific prose. 5) The language of official documents. Publicistic style has spoken varieties, in particular, the oratorical substyle. The new spoken varieties are the radio commentary, the essay and articles. The general aim of publicistic style is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essays or article. The style of official documents is the most conservative. It is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants: 1. the language of business documents; 2. the language of legal documents; 3. that of diplomacy; 4. that of military documents. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. Newspaper style is a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a separate unity that basically serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. The colloquial style is a peculiar subsystem of the English language. On the one hand, its major field of application is found in the spoken variety of language; on the other hand, elements of this style penetrate the written varieties such as the BLS, the PS and NS.. The Belles - Lettres FS poetry; emotive prose; drama

Identify which stylistic device is used in the following example: e.g. Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day). Irony is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realisation of two meanings: the literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning; used in ridicule, contempt, or humour. Emphasis is placed on the opposition between the dictionary and the intended meaning of a statement: one thing is said and the opposite is implied. Nice weather isn't it. (On a rainy day) Intonation plays an important role in expressing irony. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning, but only positive concepts may be used in it (as above: great, nice).

What is Suspense? Suspense is the intense feeling that an audience goes through while waiting for the outcome of certain events. It basically leaves the reader holding their breath and wanting more information. The amount of intensity in a suspenseful moment is why it is hard to put a book down. Without suspense, a reader would lose interest quickly in any story because there is nothing that is making the reader ask, “What’s going to happen next?” In writing, there has to be a series of events that leads to a climax that captivates the audience and makes them tense and anxious to know what is going to happen. Example: A cliffhanger is a great way to create suspense. You remember when you were a kid and very excited to watch those Saturday morning shows. You can probably recall the feeling you had at the pit of your stomach when, after about 25 minutes and lots of commercials, you were hoping to find out what happened to your favorite character. However, you didn’t get to find out. Instead they would make the “Tune In Next Week” announcement and you already knew that you would be there. Same time, same place. Suspense is a powerful literary tool because, if done correctly, you know your audience will be back for more and more.

What is tautology? Tautology is a repetitive use of phrases or words which have similar meanings. In simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea or saying two or more times. The word tautology is derived from the Greek word “tauto” (the same) and “logos” (a word or an idea). A grammatical tautology means when an idea is repeated within a phrase, sentence or paragraph to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information. Tautologies are very common in the English language due to the large variety of words it has borrowed from other languages. Given the fact that during its evolution the English language has been greatly influenced by several other languages including Germanic and Latin, it is not uncommon to find several exotic tautologies. Since English has the capacity to borrow words from foreign languages, multiple similar words are used in it and this is how tautologies can often be found in poetry as well as prose.

What is headline? A line of words printed in large letters as the title of a story.It is a heading in a newspaper for any written material, sometimes for an illustration, to indicate subject matter, set in larger type than that of the copy and containing one or more words and lines and often several banks.

What is Citation? A citation is a reference to any item (book, journal article, dissertation, archival manuscript, newspaper editorial, report, website, musical composition, etc.) which clearly identifies the source in which the full-text of the item is to be found. A citation provides sufficient information to acknowledge the author and locate the item. The information in a citation is fairly standard, but the order may change depending on the type of item being cited and the style manual you are using. Citations include: - the author(s), -the title of the item, -the publication information

What is the aim of the Language of military documents? It has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. These parties may be: a) the state and the citizen, or citizen and citizen (jurisdiction); b) a society and its members (statute or ordinance); c) two or more enterprises or bodies (business correspondence or contracts); d) two or more governments (pacts, treaties); e) a person in authority and a subordinate (orders, regulations, authoritative directions); f) the board or presidium and the assembly or general meeting (procedures acts, minutes), etc. In other words, the aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agreement between two contracting parties. Even protest against violations of statutes, contracts, regulations, etc., can also be regarded as a form by which normal cooperation is sought on the basis of previously attained concordance.

Name the rhythmic patterns of verse. The repetition of syllables, typically at the end of a verse line. Rhymed words conventionally share all sounds following the word’s last stressed syllable. Thus “tenacity” and “mendacity” rhyme, but not “jaundice” and “John does,” or “tomboy” and “calm bay.” A rhyme scheme is usually the pattern of end rhymes in a stanza, with each rhyme encoded by a letter of the alphabet, from a onward (ABBA BCCB, for example). Rhymes are classified by the degree of similarity between sounds within words, and by their placement within the lines or stanzas. -Eye rhyme rhymes only when spelled, not when pronounced. For example, “through” and “rough.” -End rhyme, the most common type, is the rhyming of the final syllables of a line. See “Midstairs” by Virginia Hamilton Adair: And here on this turning of the stairBetween passion and doubt,I pause and say a double prayer,One for you, and one for you;And so they cancel out. -Feminine rhyme applies to the rhyming of one or more unstressed syllables, such as “dicing” and “enticing.” Ambrose Bierce’s “The Day of Wrath” employs feminine rhyme almost exclusively. Half rhyme is the rhyming of the ending consonant sounds in a word (such as “tell” with “toll,” or “sopped” with “leapt”). This is also termed “off-rhyme,” “slant rhyme,” or apophany. See consonance. -Identical rhyme employs the same word, identically in sound and in sense, twice in rhyming positions. -Internal rhyme is rhyme within a single line of verse When a word from the middle of a line is rhymed with a word at the end of the line. - Masculine rhyme describes those rhymes ending in a stressed syllable, such as “hells” and “bells.” It is the most common type of rhyme in English poetry. -Monorhyme is the use of only one rhyme in a stanza. See William Blake’s “Silent, Silent Night.” -Pararhyme is poet Edmund Blunden’s term for double consonance, where different vowels appear within identical consonant pairs. For example, see Wilfred Owen’s “Strange Meeting”: “Through granites which Titanic wars had groined. / Yet also there encumbered sleepers groaned. ”

Periphrasis are divided into: 1. ________; 2. _________.? Periphrasis - is a stylistic device that consists in the renaming of an object by a phrase that brings out some particular feature of it. Longer-phrase is used instead of a shorter one. Periphrasis are divided into: 1. Logical - based on inherent properties of a thing. instruments of destruction ( pistols), the most pardonable of human weaknesses (love). 2. Figurative - based on imagery: metaphor, metonymy. e. g. To tie a knot - to get married; in disgrace of fortune - bad luck. There are traditional periphrases which are not stylistic devices, they are synonymic expressions: The giver of rings, the victor lord, the leader of hosts (king), the play of swords (battle), a shield-bearer (warrior), the cap and gown (student), the fair sex (women), my better half (my wife).

What is Parallel construction? Parallel structure (also called parallelism) is the repetition of a chosen grammatical form within a sentence. By making each compared item or idea in your sentence follow the same grammatical pattern, you create a parallel construction. Example Not Parallel: Ellen likes hiking, the rodeo, and to take afternoon naps. Parallel: Ellen likes hiking, attending the rodeo, and taking afternoon naps. OR Ellen likes to hike, attend the rodeo, and take afternoon naps.

What is Functional Style according to Galperin? According to I.R. Galperin, a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A functional style should be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of the language. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant and can deviate from the invariant, even breaking away with it. Individual style is a unique combination of language units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer's works or even utterances easily recognizable. (Galperin, p.17) Naturally, the individual style of a writer will never be entirely independent of the literary norms and canons of the given period. But the adaptations of these canons will always be peculiar and therefore distinguishable. Individual style is based on a thorough knowledge of the contemporary language and allows certain justifiable deviations from the rigorous norms. Individual style requires to be studied in a course of stylistics in so far as it makes use of the potentialities of language means, whatever the characters of these potentialities may be. All men of letters have a peculiar individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect they desire. Writers choose language means deliberately. This process should be distinguished from language peculiarities which appear in everyday speech of this or that particular individual (idiolect).

Name the substyles of The Official Documents Functional Style. Official documents are written in a formal, “cold” or matter-of-fact style of speech. The style of official documents, or ‘officialese’ as it is sometimes called, is not homogeneous and is represented by the following sub-styles, or varieties:1. the language of business documents,2. the language of legal documents,3. the language of diplomacy,4. the language of military documents.

What is Anadiplosis? The term anadiplosis is a Greek word which means “to reduplicate”. It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which marks the end of the previous clause. Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the word “give” in the sentence “When I give, I give myself.” is termed anadiplosis as it occurs at the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause. Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word “reliability” to highlight the main point of the sentence “This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city.”

Show the five styles that Galperin distinguishes. I.R. Galperin distinguishes five major functional styles in the English literary standards. They are 1) The language of belles-letres.(1. Poetry2. Emotive prose3. The Drama) 2)The language of publicistic literature.(1. Oratory and Speeches2. The Essay3. Articles)3)The language of newspapers.(1. brief News Items 2. Headlines 3. Advertisements and Announcements (объявления) 4. The Editorial (редакторская статья) 4)The language of scientific prose.5)The language of official documents.

Comment on the Disguised tautology. Prove with example. a tautology is a statement which is inevitably true solely by virtue of its structure. Alternatively, it’s a logical statement which is true for any binding of its variables – that is, the structure of the statement means that it’s true, regardless of the meanings assigned to its basic elements. For example, “A ⇒ A” – that is, “If A is true, then A is true.” It doesn’t matter what meaning you assign to A, the statement “If A is true, then A is true” will always, inevitably, be true. For a slightly more complex example, “A ∧ (A ⇒ B) ⇒ B” – in english, “If A is true, and it’s true that if A is true, then B is true, then B must be true.” It doesn’t matter what A and B are; it doesn’t matter whether A and B themselves are true or false. The statements above will always be true. It cannot possibly be anything but true, by the definitions of the basic elements of the propositional logic in which it’s written. Now, for what appears to be a change in course: What is a proof? A proof in a particular logic L is a set of basic statements (axioms), a sequence of inferred steps, and a conclusion, such that the conclusion can produced from the axioms by the application of a series of inferrence rules defined by L, where each inferrred rule produces a new fact using one of the inferrence rules of L.

Identify which stylistic device is used in the following example: Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) Allusion is used to explain or clarify a complex problem. Note that allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something the reader / audience is familiar with, e.g.: famous people, history, (Greek) mythology, literature, the bible. If the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enough to create a certain picture (or scene) in the readers’ minds. Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) (allusion on the biblical Ark of Noah)

Comment on the expressive means of language. (Language can be neutral and expressive. Expressiveness can be distinguished at all levels of the language. The expressive means of the language are phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms that exist in the language as a system for the purpose of logical and emotional intensification of the utterance. Expressive means exist on all the levels of the language. The most powerful are phonetic expressive means including stress, whispering, high/fall alliteration. Morphological expressive means include the use of second and third persons. Word-building expressive means - the use of deminuative suffixes, such as -y (frequently used). On the lexical level we distinguish neutral vocabulary and exressive vocabulary. [to die - to go West, to work - to labour, fear - horror]. Proverbs also belong to the expressive vocabulary. On the syntactical level we distinguish between the inversion and repetition. A stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intencification of some typical structural or semantic property of a language unit (word, word combination or sentence) promoted to a generalised stater and thus become a generative model. stylistic devices are built according to a fixed model [a nice table, a tasty table, an angry table; a tasty table - a case of metonomy, an angry table - a transfered epithet]. Expressive means are trite and frequently employed. Stylistic devices are geniune to a certain extent. Stylistic devices belong to the language in use. Expressive means belong to the language as a system. Expressive means are fixed in the dictionaries. According to their structure expressive means and stylistic devices can be the same [a cold day - expressive means, a sparkling day - a stylistic device]. Exits own features and quality expressive means have a trite emotive meaning. Stylistic devices have very conspiuitive emotive meaning.)

Comment on the verb and its stylistic properties. (The verb is one of the oldest parts of speech and has a very developed grammatical paradigm. It possesses more grammatical categories that any other part of speech. All deviant usages of its tense, voice and aspect forms have strong stylistic connotations and play an important role in creating a metaphorical meaning. A vivid example of the grammatical metaphor of the first type (form transposition) is the use of 'historical present' that makes the description very pictorial, almost visible. The combination and unification of different time layers may also be achieved due to the universal character of the phenomenon described, a phenomenon that is typical of any society at any time and thus make the reader a part of the events described. Various shades of modality impart stylistically coloured expressiveness to the utterance. The Imperative form and the Present Indefinite referred to the future render determination, as in the following example: Edward, let there be an end of this. I go home. (Dickens) The use of shall with the second or third person will denote the speaker's emotions, intention or determination: If there's a disputed decision, he said genially, they shall race again. (Waugh) Likewise continuous forms do not always express continuity of the action and are frequently used to convey the emotional state of the speaker. Actually ah 'exceptions to the rule' are not really exceptions. They should be considered as the forms in the domain of stylistic studies because they are used to proclaim the speaker's state of mind, his mood, his intentions or feelings.)

Give example of Trite oxymoron. (Trite oxymoron. e.g. Awfully beautiful. Oxymoron, plural oxymora, is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings e.g. “cruel kindness” or “living death”. However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence e.g. “In order to lead, you must walk behind.”)

How do we call a sudden break in the narration has the function to reveal agitated state of the speaker. e. g. On the hall table there were a couple of letters addressed to her. One was the bill. The other... (Aposiopesis (Break - in - the narrative). Sudden break in the narration has the function to reveal agitated state of the speaker. e. g. On the hall table there were a couple of letters addressed to her. One was the bill. The other... There are 3 ways of reproducing character's speech. 1) direct speech; 2) indirect speech (reported speech) 3) represented speech. Sudden break in the narration has the function to convey the strong emotions, to reveal agitated state of the speaker, - he can’t proceed his speech. e. g. You just come home or I’ll... The difference between ellipsis and break is that in ellipsis the speaker deliberately stops to let the listener guess, and in the break- he really or feigningly can’t speak.)

Identify which stylistic device is used in the following example: Truths are first clouds, then rain, then harvest and food. (Henry Ward Beecher) (Metaphor. Metaphor Definition: Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things or objects that are poles apart from each other but have some characteristics common between them. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics. In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that “something else,” you are speaking metaphorically. “He is the black sheep of the family” is a metaphor because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the herd, and the person you are describing shares similar characteristics. Common Speech Examples of Metaphors: Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write and think in metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common language. They are called conventional metaphors. Calling a person a “night owl” or an “early bird” or saying “life is a journey” are common conventional metaphor examples commonly heard and understood by most of us. Below are some more conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily life: My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.) The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.) Functions: From the above arguments, explanations and examples, we can easily infer the function of metaphors; both in our daily lives and in a piece of literature. Using appropriate metaphors appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to comprehend what is being communicated to them. Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our conversations and to the characters of the fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the world.)

Name the substyles of The Newspaper Functional Style. (Newspaper style, as it is evident from its name, is found in newspapers. The paper contains vastly varying materials, some of them being publicist essays, some-feature articles, some-scientific reviews, some-official stock-exchange accounts etc., so that a daily (weekly) newspaper also offers a variety of styles. When we mention “newspaper style”, we mean informative materials, characteristic of newspaper only and not found in other publi­cations. To attract the reader’s attention to the news, special graphical means are used. British and American papers are notor­ious for the change of type, specific headlines, space ordering, etc. We find here a large proportion of dates and personal names of countries, territories, institutions, individuals. To achieve the effect of objectivity and impartiality in rendering some fact or event, most of newspaper information is published anonymously, without the name of the newsman who supplied it, with little or no subjective modality. But the position and attitude of the paper, nonetheless, become clear from the choice not only of subject-matter but also of words denoting international or domestic issues. Substyles to understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper style it will be sufficient to analyze the following basic newspaper features:1) brief news items 2) advertisements and announcements;3) headlines; Brief items: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary. Specific features are: a) special political and economic terms; b) non-term political vocabulary; c) newspaper clichés; d) abbreviations; e) neologisms.)

What is a saying? (A saying is a short, clever expression that usually contains advice or expresses some obvious truth. Many traditional sayings are still in general use today. Most of the sayings in this section are well known in English, though some of them come from other languages. The meaning or interpretation shown for each saying is believed to be the generally accepted interpretation of the saying, though for some sayings the interpretation may be more subjective than for others. There are literally thousands of sayings in English (and all languages). The term saying conveys the idea of any expression of wisdom or truth, usually handed down by earlier generations. The origin of a saying is, in most cases, unknown. Many English sayings have come from other languages, and vice versa. Most sayings are effective thanks to their shortness and directness. They use simple, vivid language, often based on everyday domestic situations, making them easy to understand and remember. Sayings may be classified under a number of different terms, of which proverb is probably the best known. Other types of saying are adage, maxim, motto, epigram and aphorism, though frankly the distinction between them is often vague.)

What is an allusion? (Allusion Definition: Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, “I do not approve of this quixotic idea,” Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes’s “Don Quixote”, a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures. Allusion Examples in Everyday Speech: The use allusions are not confined to literature alone. Their occurrence is fairly common in our daily speech. Look at some common allusion examples in everyday life: “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” – “Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo and Juliet”. “Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our school is?” – “Newton”, means a genius student, alludes to a famous scientist Isaac Newton. Function of Allusion: By and large, the use of allusions enables writers or poets to simplify complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them. Furthermore, the references to Greek Mythology give a dreamlike and magical touch to the works of art. Similarly, biblical allusions appeal to the readers with religious backgrounds.)

What is an article? ( An article is a stand-alone section of a larger written work. These nonfictional prose compositions appear in magazines, newspapers, academic journals, the Internet or any other type of publication. Articles can be divided into two main categories: news and features. Straight news stories deal with the timeliness and immediacy of breaking news, while feature articles are news stories that deal with human-interest topics or which offer the opportunity for providing more breadth or depth, context of history or other explanatory background material. Elements of an article: 1) Headline; 2) lead sentence; 3) Body; 4) Conclusion. Characteristics of well-written articles: The piece is a factual account of a newsworthy event. The writer is objective and shows all sides to an issue. The sources for this news story are identified and are reliable. )

What is Direct onomatopoeia? (Onomatopoeia is defined as a word, which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting. For instance, saying, “The gushing stream flows in the forest” is a more meaningful description than just saying, “The stream flows in the forest.” The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a “gushing stream” which makes the expression more effective. In addition to the sound they represent, many onomatopoeic words have developed meanings of their own. For example, “whisper” not only represents the sound of people talking quietly, but also describes the action of people talking quietly. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, burr, bang, cuckoo. These words have different degrees of imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require the exercise of a certain amount of imagination to decipher it. Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, ding - dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continuously, may mean: 1) noisy, 2) strenuously contested. Function of Onomatopoeia: Generally, words are used to tell what is happening. Onomatopoeia, on the other hand, helps the readers to hear the sounds the words they reflect. Hence, the reader cannot help but enter the world created by the poet with the aid of these words. The beauty of onomatopoeic words lies in the fact that they are bound to have an effect on the readers’ senses whether they are understood or not. Moreover, a simple plain expression does not have the same emphatic effect that conveys an idea powerfully to the readers. The use of onomatopoeic words helps create emphasis.)

What is framing or ring repetition? (Repetition is a reiteration of the same word or phrase to lay an emphatic stress on certain parts of the sentence. Various types of repetition can be found in fiction: 1) ordinary repetition, i.e. a repetition of a word in close succession, e.g. She talked, in fact, and talked, and talked (A. Berkley); 2) framing or ring repetition, i.e. a repetition in which the opening word or phrase is repeated at the end of the sentence or a group of sentences, e.g. I cooled off where Frank was concerned; he didn't notice, but I cooled off (V. Pritchett); 3) anadiplosis, or catch repetition, i.e. a repetition of the last word in a sentence or clause at the beginning of the next one, e.g. Yes, but I was afraid, afraid I'd go to one who'd tell Paul. I didn't know who to go to, who I could trust (D. Hammett); 4) chain repetition, i.e. a combination of catch repetitions, e.g. A smile would come into Mr.Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the roar became general (Ch. Dickens).)

What is Grammatical meaning? (Grammatical meaning – general abstract meaning which unites classes of forms or words & finds its expression through formal markers thus placing a linguistic unit in a grammatical category or grammatical class of words. Generally grammatical meanings are more abstract than lexical meanings. (Ex. He fell down and broke his leg-yesterday, a year ago, 20 years ago-the lexical meaning is more concrete). The analysis of grammatical meaning reveals that they reflect not the fragments of reality which is done by lexical meaning, but rather the structure of such fragments. However there are cases in the language, when lexical meaning may be as wide as grammatical meaning. This is the case with words that we use to describe grammatical meanings. Such words are substance, action, number and so on are called “metalexical units”. Grammatical and lexical meanings differ in their functions and consequently in their degree autonomy. Lexical meanings are more autonomous, and grammatical meanings are not and they find expression only in combination with lexical meaning. The lexicon of the language presents an open system. New words are coined daily. The number of lexical meanings is unlimited. The grammar of the language presents a closed system and the number of grammatical meanings is conditioned by the fact that the language appears to be very particular about choosing concepts for the bases of grammatical and lexical meanings. Any concept can be expressed lexically. Whereas the number of concepts which find a grammatical expression is very limited. Such concepts as time and number find a grammatical expression in most languages. Such concepts as colour or size are expressed only lexically. There are cases when the same concept is expressed both lexically and grammatically. In such cases the grammatical representation is always more general and lexical is more concrete. The grammatical category of number differentiates between singular and plural, whereas the concrete meaning is presented in numerals. Grammatical meanings have a regular and obligatory character in the language.)

What is Oratory? (Theoretical style of language is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. It has already been pointed out that persuasion is the most obvious purpose of oratory. Direct contact with the listeners permits a combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. In its leading features, however, oratorical style belongs to the written variety of lanaguage, though it is modified by the oral form of the utterance and the use of gestures. Certain types of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are: direct address to the audience (ladies and gentlemen);
the use of the 2nd person pronoun you, etc.), sometimes contractions (I will won't, haven't, isn't and others) and the use of colloquial words. This style is evident in speeches on political and social_ problems of the day, in oratious and addresses on solemn occasions as weddings, funerals e.t.c. Political speeches fall into 2 categories: parliamentary debates and speeches at congresses, meetings and election campaign. Sermons deal mostly with religious subjects, ethics and morality. The stylistic devices employed in oratorical style are determined by conditions of communication. Antithesis is framed by parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition, while climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds. 'As the audience rely only on memory, the speaker often resorts to repetitions, to enable his listeners to follow him and retain the main its of his speech. Repetition can be regarded as the most, typical stylistic device. Almost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, antitheses, suspense, climax, rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative. Questions are most frequent because they promote "closer contact with the audience. The change of intonation breaks the monotony of the intonation pattern and revives the attention of the listeners. The desire of the speaker to convince and to rouse his audience results in the use of simile and metaphor, but these are generally traditional ones, as fresh and genuine_ devices may divert the attention of the listeners away from the main point of the speech.)

What is Periphrasis? (Definition of Periphrasis: Periphrasis originates from a Greek word “periphrazein” which means “talking around”. It is a stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression or in a few words. It is an indirect or roundabout way of writing about things. For example, using “I am going to” instead of “I will” is periphrasis. This is also called circumlocution but there is a slight difference between circumlocution and periphrasis. Types of Periphrasis: Periphrasis is one of the types of circumlocution. There are two types of circumlocution, namely periphrasis and ambage. Periphrasis is a roundabout explanation of something but ambage is an indirect and ambiguous way of expressing things or ideas. Difference between Paraphrasis and Periphrasis: Para means beside whereas peri means around. In paraphrasing, ambiguous statements are restated in order to enhance the meanings, while periphrasis is a measured roundabout way of expressing something. Examples of Periphrasis from Literature: When that fell arrest. Without all bail shall carry me away. (Sonnet 74 by William Shakespeare) In this extract, Shakespeare is explaining death and its consequences. He has used an indirect way of illustrating death as “when that fell.” Here it means, when death comes, no one would be able to save him. Function of Periphrasis: From the above examples of periphrasis, one could surmise that this literary device is used to embellish sentences by creating splendid effects to draw the readers’ attention. These periphrasis examples have also shown that the use of this literary device lends poetic flavor to prose. Periphrasis is a feature of analytical language that tends to shun inflection.)

What is Repetition? Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer. There are several types of repetitions commonly used in both prose and poetry. As a rhetorical device, it could be a word, a phrase or a full sentence or a poetical line repeated to emphasize its significance in the entire text. Repetition is not distinguished solely as a figure of speech but more as a rhetorical device. The following examples of repetition are classified according to the different types of repetition used both in literature and in daily conversations. Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last word in a line or clause. Anaphora: Repetition of words at the start of clauses or verses. Antistasis: Repetition of word s or phrases in opposite sense. Diacope: Repetition of words broken by some other words. Epanalepsis: Repetition of same words at the end and start of a sentence. Epimone: Repetition of a phrase (usually a question) to stress a point. Epiphora: Repetition of the same word at the end of each clause. Gradatio: A construction in poetry where the last word of one clause becomes the first of the next and so on. Negative-Positive Restatement: Repetition of an idea first in negative terms and then in positive terms. Polyptoton: Repetition of words of the same root with different endings. Symploce: It is a combination of anaphora and epiphora in which repetition is both at the end and at the beginning. Example 1: I’m nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody too? Then there’s a pair of us-don’t tell! They’d banish us you know. These lines have been taken from “I’m nobody! Who are You?” by Emily Dickinson. Observe how she has used “nobody” to emphasize her point in her poem to create an association with the person she is talking about. Example 2: Because I do not hope to turn again Because I do not hope Because I do not hope to turn… These three lines have been taken from “Ash-Wednesday” authored by T. S. Eliot, a famous modern poet of the 20th century. The repetition of a full phrase shows us mastery the poet has acquired in using words and phrases to make his point clear and emphasize that he has no hope of coming back

What is Polysyndeton? Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day conversations. The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning “bound together”. It makes use of coordinating conjunctions like “and”, “or”, “but” and “nor” (mostly and and or) which are used to join successive words, phrases or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used where they might have been omitted. For example, in the sentence “We have ships and men and money and stores,” the coordinating conjunction “and” is used in quick succession to join words occurring together. In a normal situation, the coordinating conjunction “and” is used to join the last two words of the list and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by a comma. Example #1: Maya Angelou, a living female poet, is well known for her use of polysyndeton which can seem excessive at times. This is what she has written in her story “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings”. “Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big houses and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly–mostly–let them have their whiteness.” (Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings) The continuity in the entire sentence is remarkable and the rhythm is exhilarating. Polysyndeton performs several functions. Not only does it join words, phrases and clauses and thus brings continuity in a sentence, but it acts also as a stylistic device, brings rhythm to the text with the repetition of conjunctions in quick succession. It is also employed as a tool to lay emphasis to the ideas the conjunctions connect.

Name the five FS styles that Galperin gave. Fun style(by Galperin) is a system of coordinated, interrelated & interconditioned language means intended to fulfill a specific function of com-n & aiming at a definite effect. Classification: 1 official style, represented in all kinds of documents. 2 scientific, found in articles, brochures, monographs & other academic publications. 3 publicist, covering such genres as essay, public speeches. 4 newspaper style, observed in the majority of materials printed in newspapers. 5 belles-lettres style, embracing numerous genres of creative writing. It fulfills the aesthetic function, which fact singles this style out of others & gives grounds to recognize its systematic uniqueness. Each of the style has 2 forms: written & oral. All the mentioned styles are specified within the literary type of the language. Their functioning is characterized by the international approach of the speaker towards the choice of lang-e means suitable for a particular com-ve situation & the official, formal nature of the latter.

What is the Assonance? Assonance takes place when two or more words close to one another repeat the same vowel sound but start with different consonant sounds. For instance, “M e n s e ll the w e dding b e lls.” The same vowel sound of the short vowel “-e-” repeats itself in almost all the words excluding the definite article. The words do share the same vowel sounds but start with different consonant sounds unlike alliteration that involves repetition of the same consonant sounds. Common Assonance Examples: -We l i ght f i re on the mountain. - I feel depr e ssed and r e stl e ss. - G o and m o w the l a wn. - Johnny went here and th e re and everywh e re. - The engin ee r held the st ee ring to st ee r the vehicle. Examples of Assonance in Literature: Example #2: Assonance sets the mood of a passage in Carl Sandburg’s Early Moon: “Poetry is old, ancient, goes back far. It is among the oldest of living things. So old it is that no man knows how and why the first poems came.” Notice how the long vowel “o” in the above extract helps emphasize the idea of something being old and mysterious. Function of Assonance: Similar to any other literary device, assonance also has a very important role to play in both poetry and prose. Writers use it as a tool to enhance a musical effect in the text by using it for creating internal rhyme, which consequently enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. In addition, it helps writers to develop a particular mood in the text that corresponds with its subject matter.

Distinguish the styles within the English literary language. The style in writing can be defined as the way a writer writes and it is the technique which an individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author to author and depends upon one’s syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also be described as a voice that readers listen to when they read the work of a writer. Types of Style. There are four basic literary styles used in writing. These styles distinguish the work of different authors from one another. Here are four styles of writing: Expository or Argumentative style: Expository writing style is a subject-oriented style. The focus of the writer in this type of writing style is to tell the readers about a specific subject or topic and in the end the author leaves out his own opinion about that topic. Descriptive style. In descriptive writing style, the author focuses on describing an event, a character or a place in detail. Sometimes, descriptive writing style is poetic in nature in, where the author specifies an event, an object or a thing rather than merely giving information about an event that has happened. Usually the description incorporates sensory details. Persuasive style Persuasive style of writing is a category of writing in which the writer tries to give reasons and justification to make the readers believe his point of view. The persuasive style aims to persuade and convince the readers. Narrative style. Narrative writing style is a type of writing where the writer narrates a story to. It includes short stories, novels, novellas, biographies and poetry. Examples of Style in Literature: An excerpt from Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde. “The studio was filled with the rich odor of roses, and when the light summer wind stirred amidst the trees of the garden… The sullen murmur of the bees shouldering their way through… or circling with monotonous insistence…” This is a good example of descriptive writing style since the author gives visualizations, feelings, description of a location and details about bees that could be seen and heard. Function of Style: A unique literary style can have great impact on the piece in which it is used and on the readers. When authors write and put their ideas into words, they meet with a large number of choices which include: words, sounds, logic, sentence structures. However, different authors use different literary styles that depend on their distinct expression and their utilization of these choices. And their choice creates their niche.

What is Interjections? Interjections are small words that bear no grammatical connection with the sentences in which they are used. They express the emotions or sentiments of the speaker or convey hesitation or protest. They are usually followed by an exclamation mark. Since many interjections are mainly written forms of actual sounds that were produced by humans, they are hardly used in academic or scholarly writing, unless they are a part of a direct quote or otherwise. Ah! Now that’s what I call a good shot! Bravo! Both Ah and Bravo are interjections used to show the speaker’s admiration in the sentence. There are many different uses for various interjections; the following is a list of the common interjections you may hear around you in daily life -

What is a cliché? Prove with your example. Cliché refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events which are predictable because of some previous events. All examples of Cliché are expressions that were once new and fresh. They won popularity in public and hence have been used so extensively that such expressions now sound boring and at times irritable due to the fact that they have lost their original color. For instance, the phrase “as red as a rose” must have been a fresh and innovative expression at some point in time but today it is considered universally as a cliché and does not sound good to be used in everyday formal writing. Common Cliché Examples: Example #1: In describing time, the following expressions have turned into cliché: in the nick of time – to happen just in time; only time will tell – to become clear over time; a matter of time – to happen sooner or later; Example #2: In describing people, these expressions have turned into cliché: as brave as a lion – a cliché to describe a very brave person; as clever as a fox – a cliché to describe a very clever person; as old as the hills – a cliché to describe an old person

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