Classification of phonemes

In addition to the above-mentioned principle of the classification of vowels phoneticians suggest five other criteria:

1) stability of articulation 2) lip position 3) character of the vowel end 4) length 5) tenseness

The stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in the process of the articulation. There are two possible variants: a) the tongue position is stable, in this case the articulated vowel is pure, it consists of one element and is called a monophthong; and b) the tongue position changes, in this case a vowel consists of two elements, the first one is strong, it is a nucleus, the second element is very weak – it is a glide. There exists a third variety, when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak, in this case the articulated vowel is not pure, but it still consists of one element, such vowels are called diphthongoids. So according to this principle the English vowels are subdivided into:

a) monophthongs [ɪ], [ʊ], [e], [ɜ:], [ə], [ʌ], [ɔ:], [æ], [ɒ], [a:]

b) diphthongs [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [ɜʊ], [ɔɪ], [aɪ], [aʊ], [ɛə]

c) diphthongoids [i:], [u:]

Some phoneticians, however, do not share this way of thinking and do not distinguish diphthongoids. But for the learners of English it is important to know this differentiation as it is useful for teaching purposes. Besides in modern English the tendency for diphthongization is becoming gradually stronger.

Another feature of English vowels is lip rounding. Traditionally three lip positions are distinguished: spread, neutral and rounded. In English lip rounding is not relevant phonologically (it means that no two words can be distinguished on its basis).

Our next point should be made about another characteristic of English vowels. It's checkness. The quality of all English monophthongs in the stressed position is strongly affected by the following consonant. If a stressed vowel is followed by a strong (fortis) voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong and the vowel is called checked. If a vowel is followed by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by no consonant at all the end of it is weak. In this case the vowel is called free.

Now it should be useful to consider another articulatory characteristic of English vowels, that is their length or quantity. The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into short [ɪ], [e], [æ], [ɒ], [ʊ], [ʌ], [ə] and long ones [i:], [a:], [ɔ:], [ɜ:], [u:].

It should be noted that vowel length or quantity has for a long time been the point of disagreement among phoneticians. The problem is whether variations in quantity are meaningful (relevant) or not. Let's look at the pairs of words: [bɪd - bi:d], [sɪt - si:t]. Are they distinguished from one another by the opposition of different length (that's the approach of D. Jones, an outstanding British phonetician) or is the difference in quality (or in other words the position of the active organ of speech) decisive here? Most Russian phoneticians are in favour of the second conception. They state that a feature can be systemic if it does not depend on the context. As to the length of English vowels, it varies and depends on a lot of factors, the first being phonetic context. The shortest are vowels followed by voiceless consonants and the longest are in free position.

Before passing on to the classification of English consonants the difference between consonants and vowels should be considered. Acoustically consonants are noises, not musical tones like vowels. From the articulatory point of view the difference is due to the work of speech organs. In case of consonants various obstructions are made.

As to the classification of English consonants there are few ways of seeing the situation. One of them is the classification according to the type of obstacle. On this ground two large classes of consonants are distinguished:

1) occlusive, which are produced when a complete obstruction is formed: [t, d, p, b, k, g], [m, n, ŋ];

2) constrictive, which are produced when an incomplete obstruction is formed: [s, z, f, v, Ɵ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, h], [w, r, l, j].

Each of the 2 classes is subdivided into noise consonants (these are those in the production of which noise prevails over tone) and sonorants (in the production of which tone component prevails). Noise occlusive consonants are called stops because the air stream is completely stopped at some point of articulation and then released with an explosion, that is why they are also called plosives: [t, d, p, b, k, g]. Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives, because the air escapes through the narrowing with friction: [s, z, f, v, Ɵ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, h].

Occlusive-constrictive consonants or affricates are noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air stream escapes from the mouth with some friction. There are only two affricates in English: [ʧ,ʤ].

Other phoneticians suggest that the first and basic principle of classification should be thedegree of noise. So consonants are divided first into noise consonants and sonorants and then each group is divided into smaller groups.

Another very important principle is the place of articulation. According to this principle English consonants are classed into labial, lingual and glottal.

I. Labial consonants in their turn are subdivided into a) bilabial (produced when both lips are active) [w, m, p, b]; b) labio-dental (articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth) [f, v].

II. Among the class of lingual consonants three subclasses are distinguished: a) forelingual; b) medio-lingual; c) back-lingual. Forelingual consonants are also of three kinds:

1) apical (articulated with the tip of the tongue) [t, d, s, z, Ɵ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, ʤ, ʧ, n, l].

2) dorsal (produced when the blade of the tongue is active). There are no dorsal consonants in English. In Russian these are the sounds [т, д, с, з, ш, ж, н, л].

3) cacuminal (articulated with the tip of the tongue curled back). There is only one cacuminal consonant in English - [r].

According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be:

- interdental, articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth: [Ɵ, ð];

- dental, produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth: the Russian [т, д, с, з, ц, л];

- alveolar, produced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth ridge: [t, d, s, z, n, l];

- post-alveolar, articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge: [r];

- palato-alveolar, made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation (two foci): [ʧ, ʤ, ʃ, ʒ].

b) mediolingualconsonants are produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate, so they are always palatal: [j].

c) backlingualconsonants are also called velar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate: [k, g, ŋ].

III. The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis. There are no glottal consonants in Russian.

One more articulatory characteristic which should be mentioned is the position of the soft palate. According to this principle consonants may be oral and nasal. There are only three nasal consonants in English, which require the lowered position of the soft palate: [m, n, h]. The rest of the consonants are oral because in their production the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth.

Our next point will be made in connection with another sound property, that is voice-voiceless characteristic. When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice and the consonants are voiced: [b, d, g, v, z, ð, ʒ, ʤ]. When the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the consonants are voiceless: [p, t, k, f, s, Ɵ, ʃ, ʧ]. It should be noted that the difference between such pairs as [p, b], [t, d] and so on is based not only on the absence or presence of the voice component, as voiced consonants are not fully voiced in all word positions, in word final position, for example, they are partially devoiced. There's also energy difference. All voiced consonants are weak or lenis and all voiceless consonants are strong or fortis.

Summing it up, it should be mentioned that the most important articulatory features, which could serve as a criterion for grouping consonants into functionally similar classes, are: type of obstruction; place of articulation and the active organ of speech; force of articulation.

The rest of the characteristics are considered to be irrelevant, as they are of no importance from the phonological point of view, but they provide necessary and useful information for teaching purposes. It is for this reason that they are normally included into the classification.

3. Syllable Formation and division.

S.Formation in English is based on the phonological opposition vowel – consonant. Vowels are usually syllabic while consonant are not, with the exception of (l), (m), (n), which became syllabic if they occur in an unstressed final position preceded by a noise consonant. There are distinguished four types of syllables: 1) open, 2) closed, 3) covered, 4) uncovered.

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