Wien Vienna

Vienna, the capital of Austria, lies near the north-eastern spur of the Alps, at the foot of the Vienna Woods, 151-542 metres above sea level, on the banks of the River Danube. Its geographic position is latitude 48°12' north and longitude 16°22' east. The area is 414 sq.km. and the population 1,543,100 (2003) excluding the satellite towns.

The history of Vienna begins in the ist century AD, when the Romans founded a military camp called Vin-dobona, one of a chain of fortified positions. The camp was bounded to the north-east by a steep slope descend­ing towards the Danube, to the north-west by the Ottak-ring brook (now Tiefer Graben), to the south-east by ramparts along the line of the present-day Rotgasse and Kramergasse, and on the south-west by the Graben and Naglergasse. About the same time a civilian Roman town grew up in the area of today's 3rd District, which became a free city (municipium) in 213 AD. In the 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana still figured on a Roman map. It is mentioned for the last time in the Notitia dignitatum of 400 AD, after which the Romans aban­doned the camp and the town was destroyed by fire. Only fragments remain from Roman times, but the main outlines of the legionary camp are still clearly dis­cernible.

Chronicles and documents that refer to the area seldom mention the Great Migrations and few archaeological funds have been made from that period. In his Getica (550 AD) Jordanes refers to a civitas Vindomina; a 6th century cemetery and some 7th century coins were found in Salvatorgasse; the Salzburg Annals of 881 contain the first documentary evidence of a battle against the Hungarians (Primwn bellwn cum Ungaris ad Weniam). This documentary evidence and archaeological dis­coveries in the Berghof area of the ist District would lead one to assume that these were only remaining settlements on the site of the former military camp, whose walls were still standing in parts. In the middle of the 11th century, when the mixed Slavic-Avar and Hungarian population of the area between the Vienna Woods and the River Leitha were being absorbed into the German kingdom, Vienna must have had considerable import­ance as a defence position and a centre of legislation and trade. Within the central area of today's Vienna three phases of development can be discerned: 1. With­in the walls of the Roman camp settlement nuclei were formed and systematically developed in the 7th-9th centuries; 2. Outside the Roman camp, at road junctions and along main highways further settlements developed independently of the old town in the loth-11th centuries; 3. Again outside the Roman camp, but in direct contact with the old town, suburbs outside the city walls came into being in the 11th-12th centuries. The communities that arose on the site of the Roman camp greatly in­fluenced the way the city centre developed. The oldest nucleus was the Berghof, the stronghold of the town, in the north-east. Before the age of the Babenbergs it must have been the seat of the lords of the city and probably of the Formbach family. Till the beginning of the 9th century the stronghold, along with Ruprechtsldrche (St Rupert's Church), the market called Kienmarkt and a row of houses formed an easily defensible settlement which by its economic importance became the germ of the early medieval city. Two further settlements, one in the south-east around Peterskirche (St Peter's Church), belonging to the same ecclesiastical organization, and one around the Maria am Gestade Church in the north­west, developed and remain to this day.

The Niederaltaich Annals of 1030 mention that at Vienni (or near it) the armies of Emperor Conrad were defeated by the Hungarians. In 1042 the Kaiserchronik (Imperial Chronicle) stated that Emperor Henry II held a court day in Vienna; about a third of the way through the i ith century the settlement around the Peterskirche expanded in the direction of Tuchlauben, where houses clustered around the Witmarkt, a triangular place charac­teristic of the age, of which remains exist to this day. The various settlements grew together and were sur­rounded by new ramparts. The area between the ram­parts (west of Tuchlauben) and the old camp wall (Tiefer Graben) were left vacant and only acquired sig­nificance in the middle of the 12th century.

Initially the development of the settlement outside the former Roman camp was linked with the old road net­work around Vienna. Some of the population found the areas along the roads leading from the ancient camp boundaries (today's Wahringer Strafie, Herrengasse and Augustinerstrafie) to the city gates particularly suitable sites. In this way the Schaufellucke came into being, directly beside the first Michaelerkirche (St Michael's Church, built in 1100), where Schauflergasse runs today. To the east, beyond Karntner Strasse, which leads south, a fortified mercantile settlement called Wihpurc (Weih-burg) was established as the protected terminal of the trade route to Venice, while to the north-east the suburb of Kumpflucke sprang up.

The first suburb to grow up directly under the walls was amalgamated with the old town in the early part of the 11th century. It was a mercantile settlement called Lugeck, which stood in front of the Ungarisches Tor (Hungarian Gate) at the starting point of the other important trade route, which led to Hungary. Lugeck formed, in certain respects, a counterpart to Weihburg. To the north it was bounded by the Fleischmarkt (Meat Market), and to the south by Wollzeile.

In the 1130s, probably still in the time of Margrave Leopold III, in whose reign the Austrian Duchy was formed, Vienna came into the hands of the House of Babenberg. It is first referred to as a civitas in the Treaty of Mautem, which brought about territorial exchanges between Margrave Leopold IV and Reginmar, Bishop of Passau. The original Stephanskirche (St Stephen's Church) was built in Romanesque style between 1137 and 1147, and its positioning influenced the further development of the surrounding area. Around 1155 Henry II established his seat in Vienna. The Privilegium minus granted a whole series of privileges to the House of Babenberg and gave rise to the extraordinarily rapid development of Austria as a duchy. From the architec­tural and town-planning points of view the ducal court (Am Hot, or Herzogshof, c. 1155) were essential elements in the projects of Duke Leopold V, especially since the Herzogshof and the adjacent Jewish quarter to the north occupied the last stretch of open space within the walls of the former Roman camp. It meant that the develop­ment of the civilian town became obstructed and the growing population could find no more sites for building. The expansion of the city had probably been started by Leopold V in 1180, and was more or less completed by the beginning of the reign of Leopold VI (1198). The old town walls lost their significance as defences as early as 1170, so that in 1190 the moat on the south-western side was levelled to form a square (the present Graben). The new city-wall was 3.5 km long. However, the build­ing of it made little progress and was only finished after the ransom extorted for the release of Richard Coeur-de-Lion was obtained. The expanded medieval city was a trade centre, a border defence position and a ducal seat. By the beginning of the 13th century it was already a highly developed community with municipal rights (1221), its own administration (city magistrate and council) and economic privileges (staple right). Some of the city's activities was taken over by the Neustadt (New City). The Neuer Markt (New Market) became a trade centre around which numerous workshops and inns were set up and had important effects on trade and transport. During the decades that followed, several monasteries were built near the gates. The city soon grew beyond the new walls: records from 1200 to 1257 mention (in chronological order) the establishment of the Convent of the Cistercian Order, the consecration of the Heilig-geistspital (Holy Spirit Hospital) and the Ulrichskapelle (St Ulrich's Chapel), the settling of members of the Magdalene Order and, from 1257, the existence of a civilian hospital.

In spite of the immense development of the city in the 19th century, the street layout of the inner city still retains marks of the Romanesque Vienna of 1000-1250. The oldest building, the Ruprechtskirche (St Rupert's Church), was originally founded in the 8th century, but in its present form it is predominantly from the iith century. Of the Romanesque buildings that so influenced the later growth of the city, only fragments have survived: behind the Neoclassical west front of the Michaeler­kirche (St Michael's Church), the'Dark Sacristy' of the Schottenkirche (Scottish Church) and the 'Roman chapel'. The whole western part of the second Roman­esque Stephanskirche, built between 1230 and 1240, was incorporated into the later Gothic church.

After the dying out of the House of Babenberg (Duke Frederick II was killed in action near the River Leitha in 1246), Austria was ruled from 1251 to 1276-78 by the Bohemian king Otakar Premysl. Vienna became the capital of the Holy Roman Empire which at its maximum stretched from the Riesengebirge to the Adriatic Sea. In the mid-1270s Otakar contributed to the development of the city by building a well defensible -castle near Schweizertrakt (Widmer Gate), which was later completed by the Habsburgs. The court dignitaries, employees and suppliers who settled near the castle changed the social structure of the neighbourhood. The nobility established quarters along both sides of Herrengasse; near the Kohlmarkt (Coal Market) a servants' district grew up; between Wallner Strafie and Naglergasse a craftsmen's district came into being. The castle district included the early 12th century Michaeler-kirche, the early 13th century Minoritenkirche (belong­ing to the Order of Minorite Friars who settled in Vienna in 1224) and the Augusdnerkirche from the beginning of the 14th century.

Beside the aristocratic quarter around the castle, an ecclesiastical centre developed in the neighbourhood of the Stephanskirche, while along the Graben a new civic quarter came into being, which stretched as far as the rows of houses of the patriciate, the guilds and the ad­ministrative centre at the Hoher Markt in the north, while in the south, around the Neuer Markt, which was the terminal of the Italian trade route, it extended to the craftsmen's quarter. Adjacent to these lay the Jewish quarter and farther on the University quarter. The Jewish quarter was destroyed during the massacre of 1421, after which the Jewish population was banished from the whole empire. To further the development of the city, its farmlands and gardens were gradually encroached upon, while buildings became taller and were divided into increasingly large numbers of tenancies. At the beginning of the 14th century the systematic building up of the area within the city-walls had reached its peak.

The first great architectural creation of the early 14th century, a period of transition between the high and the late Middle Ages, was the choir of the Stephanskirche, known as the Albertinischer Chor (1304-40), and later the rebuilding of the whole edifice as a cathedral (1359-1446). It was the first of a whole series of ecclesiastical construction and reconstruction projects, most of which have survived, though some only in altered forms. They include the Deutschordenskirche (Church of the Teu­tonic Knights), the choir of the Michaelerkirche, the Georgskapelle (St George's Chapel), the chancel of Maria am Gestade, the Minoritenkirche, the Malteser-kirche (Church of the Knights of Malta), etc.

The Stephanskirche is a magnificent example of Austrian late Gothic.

The first phase of the Hofburg was built in the Gothic period. The Schweizcrhof was built in the i3th century with four strong towers at its comers; the chapel is the only Gothic part to survive. The first mention of it comes in 1296; in 1447-1449 it was enlarged. The House of the Estates was reconstructed in 1513-16, when Gothic halls were added to the original buildings.

From the end of the 13th century there were constant struggles between the city striving to expand its rights and its Habsburg princes, who tried to restrictthem. After the unsuccessful rebellion of 1296, Albrecht I forced the citizens to accept new icstricted; rights, but the staple right continued in force. In the middle of the 14th century Rudolf IV deprived the so-called 'hereditary citizens'- small leading group in the city - of their main source of income which derived from ground rents. However, through gaining fact privilege of electing their own' city council in 1396, the political influence of the well-to-do craftsman families increased. The hereditary citizens, craftsmen and merchants each elect­ed a third of the 18 seats on the council. At the begin­ning of the 15th century the struggle between the bour­geoisie and the Habsburgs became sharper, culminating in the execution of the Mayor, Wolfgang Holzer, in 1463.

The relegation of Vienna from its position as a centre during the reign of Frederick III and the city's occupation by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary from 1485 to 1490 led to a decline at the end of the Middle Ages. Although classical. culture continued to flourish, the privileges that had been granted, to the German merchants robbed the Viennese of their economic power and, as a consequence, of their political significance as well. The most important constitutional and economic institutions were disbanded.

The new regulations on the city, which superseded the medieval city rights in 1526, ended the last vestiges of civilian self-government. The mayor, was reduced to a mere officer of the principality, subordinate to the Lower Austrian provincial government.

For the Christians of the west, Vienna was the bulwark against the Turks, and the city was consequently turned into a stronghold for neady two centuries. In addition, it was the centre of the Counter-Reformation movement led by the Jesuits and other orders and, from 1533 on, of increasing importance, as: the seat of the Habsburg emperors. All these factors affected its devel­opment: new defences were erected and a number of monasteries and churches, some in the Italian and Spanish styles, were founded in the city centre. Build­ings designed in Renaissance and later in Baroque style appeared in increasing number beside the Gothic houses. The middle classes were faring their place as the commissioners of building work a favour of the mili­tary, the aristocracy and the ckqy. In addition to the prosperous area around the castle, a growing number of houses were built by the nobility im the citizens' districts, for example east of Kärntner Straβe.

The first Turkish siege (1529) Aowed that the city-walls were obsolete and no longer able to withstand a powerful assault. Archduke Ferdinand (later. Holy Roman Emperor) therefore ordered the construction of a new defence system, choosing as example the fortfications of the Italian Renaissance period and inviting Italian engineers to help build them. The extensive new defences with their huge bastions surrounded the whole of the old town and all building in front of them was banned. So many citizens had lost their homes by the building of the fortifications, and housing had to be systematically erected in the Unterer Werd (today's Leopoldstadt) to replace them. The craftsmen's districts and the market gardeners' dwellings which until the first Turkish siege had stood directly under the city-walls in what was called the Lucken district afterwards disappeared, severing the last physical point of contact between the city and its ever larger and more populous suburbs. During the following decades the open space around the castle was enlarged several times and hindered the amalgamation of the city with its suburbs until the second half of the 19th century. Many tradesmen and craftsmen withdrew to the outskirts. Within the city buildings were erected closer and closer together, and the accommodation required by the court employees and officials (who, for set rents, were billeted in the houses of the citizenry) caused an added strain that led to a worsening of housing conditions in general. Gothic dwellings were gradually replaced by Renaissance style ones on larger sites with a larger number of floors. The bird's-eye view by Jakob Hoefnagel (1609) shows graphi­cally how the Gothic pattern of the dty was disintegrat­ing.

During the 16th century Vienna's building energies were almost entirely taken up by the construction of fortifications. The most significant Renaissance building in the dty centre, the Stallburg, with its three-storeyed, arcaded court, was built for the hereditary prince, Maximilian II (1558-1565). The Schweizertrakt was embellished with a new facade and extended by the addition of the Schweizertor (Swiss Gate 1552-1553). Emperor Rudolf II commissioned the Amelienburg (1574-1611) to replace the old Cillierhof. Other notable buildings from the Renaissance period are the Porcia Palais in Herrengasse, the facade of the Franciscan Church (1603-14) and the Evangelical (Lutheran) Church in Dorotheergasse. Of the few surviving 16th century town-houses. No. 7 Backerstrafie, with its fine arcaded courtyard, is the most interesting.

As a result of the "onslaught on the monasteries" mounted by Cardinal Melchior Khiesi, early Baroque followed its conquest of Salzburg by triumphing in Vienna in the first half of the 17th century. The work of Italian artist families made such an impact that Roman Baroque became the dominant style. Of the ecclesiastical buildings, the following are the most noteworthy: the Kapuzinerkirche (1622-32), the Jesuitenkirche (1627-31), which in its present form is the work of Andrea Pozzo (1703-1707), the Dominikanerkirche (1631-74), and the Schottenkirchc, of which the reconstruction was carried out by Andrea d'Allio and Silvestro Carlone (1643-1648).

The reconstruction of the University (1623-1627), the elongated wing of the Hofburg built under Leopold in 1660-1668, the Bishop's Palace (after 1723 the Erzbischof-liches-Archbishop's—Palais), the Starhemberg-Palais, the Esterhazy-Palais and the Dietrichstein, later Lobko-witz-Palais, are regarded as outstanding architectural creations of the age. Most of the other early Baroque palaces of the nobility have been destroyed; only a very few commoners' houses survive.

Vienna's role as a border fortress ended with the repulsion of the second Ottoman onslaught in 1683. In 1704, on the instructions of Prince Eugene of Savoy, the suburbs which had grown up in front of the dty-walls were guarded against further attacks by a so-called Linienwall built approximately along the lines of the present Giirtel (outer ring road). This increased the area of the dty many times over and large-scale building in the mature Baroque style could begin and then extend also to the outskirts and suburbs. The shifting of the centre of interest within the Habsburg domains back to the hereditary provinces of Austria gave fresh mo­mentum to building work in the Age of Baroque. Vienna became the Baroque, imperial capital of a great central European power and developed substantially during the following century. In the 18th century the upper nobility built city palaces and the wealthy bourgeoisie set up summer residences outside the confines of the city. By 1740 nearly 400 country houses, mansions and castles had been built around Vienna. To this day the view between the Ring and the Giirtel is dominated by the Belvedere that Prince Eugene of Savoy had built, and by the Auersperg, Liechtenstein, Schonbom, Schwar-zenberg and Trautson palaces. The Court also embarked upon large-scale building. In 1695 it commissioned the architect Johann Bemhard Fischer von Eriach to build Schlofi Schonbrunn. The building owes its present form to Nikolaus Pacassi, who reconstructed it between 1744 and 1749. Inside it is already characteristic of the transition to Rococo. The many new buildings and re­constructions that went on in the 18th century gave the dty centre an overall Baroque character, which the pub­lic buildings that survive today still show, although the contemporary dwelling houses in the same style have long disappeared. An idea of the Baroque dty and its suburbs can be had from the plan made around 1770 by Folbert van Alten-Allen and Joseph Daniel Huber.

The roots of the unprecedented passion for building that characterized the Age of Baroque were both material and intellectual. At the onset of late Baroque it were the buildings of the then highly powerful Roman Cath­olic Church that dominated the dty.

Four decades later, under Charles VI (1711-1740) Vienna's aspect had changed into that of a city of stately mansions. It was the period of the great Austrian archi­tects, sculptors and painters of the reign of Maria There­sa (1740-1780). Although politically Vienna's significance increased, it was impossible to restore the medieval conditions of feudal civil consciousness. By the end of the 18th century public administration had become strongly centralized so that the political ambitions of the citizenry were considerably dampened. The spread of late Baroque architecture began with the work of Johann Bemhard Fischer von Eriach, who in 1686 broke the monopoly of the Italian architects. Other names besides Fischer's are Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt (after 1696) and Fischer's son, Joseph Emanuel. Charac­teristic creations of the period are the Harrach-Palais (1690), the Liechtenstein-Palais (1694), the Strattmann-Palais (1692-1694), the Winterpalais (1695-1702) and the Batthyany-Schonbom-Palais (1699-1706). The first official commission received by Fischer was to design the Bohmische Hofkanzlei (Bohemian Court Chancellery) in WipplingerstraBe (1708-1710). Hildebrandt created the Belvedere and completed the Winterpalais. Like the elder Fischer, he implemented important projects in the suburbs (1702). In the city centre he created a new type of palace with his Palais Kinsky (1713-16). The Palais Bartolotd v. Partenfeld in the Graben (1720), the last remnant of the once Baroque square, is also attributed to Hildebrandt.

The two architects mentioned above were also com­missioned to do large-scale official building projects. Hildebrandt built the Geheime Hofkanzlei (1717-1719), today the Federal Chancellor's Office; the same building was reconstructed in 1766 by Nicolaus Pacassi. Johann Bernhard Fischer altered the whole Hofburg according to new conceptions, reconstructed the court stables in the suburbs, and built the most important secular build­ing of the time, the Hofbibliothek (Court Library). The latter and the Karlskirche (1737) were completed by Fischer's son, Joseph Emanuel. As his father's successor, Fischer junior also acted as court architect, enjoying priority over Hildebrandt. He finished the Reichs-kanzldtrakt in the Hofburg and his design for the Winterreitschule (Spanish Riding School) pointed the way towards Neoclassicism. Of the great Neoclas­sical creations of the Baroque period, only the Peterskirche (St Peter's Church, 1702-33, Hildebrandt) stands in the city centre. In the suburbs, two artistically priceless churches can be found: the Piaristenkirche, with fresco-paintings by Maulbertsch, and the Rococo Gardekirche (Church of the Guards).

Models such as these were taken for the styles of bourgeois town houses, although simplified.

Under Joseph II, Maria Theresa's absolutism turned into a characteristically Austrian 'enlightened despotism'.

The Emperor decreed the modernization, of the country's administration and of local government. He incorporated Vienna into the strictly centralized framework, thus completing his mother's reforms, and by applying mer­cantilist principles he turned subjects still living under the medieval guild system into modem citizens.

As manufacturing grew, the further, expansion of the city was affected first of all by trade policy and the reor­ganization of industrial controls introduced in the early 1760s. The establishment of factories, chiefly on the already densely populated area between the Glacis and Linienwall, and to a lesser extent in the north-eastern suburbs which later developed into summer resorts, was supported by the state. The capital's increasing official, economic and cultural significance led to a rapid rise in population, as large numbers of impoverished agricul­tural workers from other parts of the empire came to the capital's factories. Tenements were built in large num­bers, the demand for offices for. the; centralized public administration increased, and the^: new branches of industry also required premises. All helped change the architectural aspect of the city towards the end of the 18th century. The first discussions about extending the city's borders started at the beginning of the 19th century. As Napoleon withdrew from Vienna in 1809 he blew up the bastions of the city-walls, and it was decided that as they had become of little use they should not be repaired. Instead they were replaced by a public park (the Volks-garten) in front of the Hofburg,-and by 1817.the city had ceased to be fortified in any practical sense, although the army still kept control over the fortifications and the area around them, thus thwarting up to 1820 any plans for expanding the city.

As far back as the 1790s the government had begun to keep the factory workers away from the nucleus of the city. More and more factories were compelled to operate in the outlying districts, but after 1809 new factories were again set up in areas near the centre. As the over­built area within the defensive belt made further devel­opment impossible, the settlements known today as Mddling, Penzing, Rudolfsheim-Funfhaus, Ottakring and Hemals became popular locations for industry because they offered relatively favourable infrastructural conditions and labour was readily available. The working class tended to be concentrated in the western parts of Vienna, if only because the former fortified zone, having lost its military significance, became a customs frontier in 1829 where various commodities and foodstuffs were taxed. Outside this line the cost of living was therefore lower. By the early 1840s the suburbs had grown to­wards the dty centre to such an extent that thdr official unification had to be considered. Gradually the'overcrowd-cd surrounding settlements became organically connected with the extended dty. The amalgamation was promoted by the construction of roads leading to neighbouring smart summer resorts. As early as the 1830s the territorial development of the city was being influenced by two factors: transport, particularly the building of railway lines, and the construction of public utilities such as water mains, roads and flood-control works. In the last third of the 19th century, as economic prosperity grew, Vienna was the administrative, trading and financial centre of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, with 34 densely populated suburbs attached to its historic nu­cleus.

In the arts, the cultural influence of the French was still strong in the second half of the 18th century. Several artists came to Vienna from Lorraine in the suite of Franz Stefan, husband of Maria Theresa. The only significant secular Rococo building is the Old University with its famous assembly hall, the work of Jean Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey (1753-1755). The first outstanding exponent of Neoclassical architecture, Johann Ferdinand Hetzendorfvon Hohenberg, and the representative of the French variant of the Neoclassical, Isidor Canevale, also appeared soon. The most important work of the latter, the Josephinum, was built in 1773-1775. Louis Montoyer rebuilt Taroucca Palace, today known as the Albertina (1801-1804), and also the ceremonial hall of the Hofburg (1804-1807). His most important work, however, was the Rasumofsky Palace (1806-1807). Other great figures were. Pietro Nobile, Joseph Komhausel and Paul Sprenger. Komhausel built the central synagogue, the Schottenhof (1826-1832), a prototype for later large dwelling houses and the Josephstadter Theatre. Sprenger's most notable works, the Mint, the Main Customs House and the Prov­incial Inland Revenue Office, are in the suburbs. In the old city centre, squares and streets were regulated, if rather unimaginatively. The suburbs developed steadily through the location of industrial premises. Backyard factories were erected in the previously empty courtyards of large buildings. During the period of industrial pros­perity, public buildings, banks, civilian apartments and tenements ousted the mansions of the nobility. The characteristic style of bourgeois Vienna became Bieder-meier. In the city centre the shortage of housing was alleviated by raising the height of new buildings. Beyond the defensive line, factories, multi-storey tenements around courtyards and buildings with separate wings for dwellings and workshops were built in large numbers.

Architecture changed radically in the 1830s, as small-scale industry gave way to the larger units of the industrial revolution. An almost symbolic event of the period was the establishment of the Austrian National Bank in 1816. Around the time of the 1848 Revolution the social and political preconditions for capitalism in Vienna were established through the introduction of the so-called communal law which did away with the feudal forms of municipal government.

Within the dual system that prevailed after the Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich (Compromise) in 1867, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy grew into a European great power, and Vienna as its capital developed alongside it. By 1850 it became imperative to improve communications be­tween the old city centre and the surrounding districts. So too did the building of appropriate houses for the growing upper middle classes and of suitably grand public buildings. After a while these requirements overrode the misgivings of the military. With his famous letter dated 1857 to the Minister of the Interior, Alexander Freiherr von Bach, Emperor Francis Joseph I ordered the demolition of the system of ramparts and the Glacis. With this measure the extension of the city embarked upon in 1850 reached its optimal completion.

Vienna's further development was decisively influenced by the competition for the planning of the RingstraBen-zone (Boulevard area). It led to considerable architectural activity in the years 1860-80, of which two outstanding results were the building of the Ring and the architectural and sociological decentralization of the old city.

By the outbreak of the First World War practically the whole city had been rebuilt. The end of feudal rule led to changes both in social stratification and in the function of the former palaces. Private building reflected the social position of the new leading class, the ennobled bourgeoisie. In the second half of the 19th century the "Ring period" and 'historicism' (style revivals) were inseparably entwined into political, economic and cultural notions. The fortunate coincidence of optimal conditions in every field of art and city development gave rise to important individual creations. Practically every architect of renown in Europe took part in the planning of the Ring and its surroundings, and the government authorities concerned naturally also had their say in the matter. The effect of the Ring lies in the development of its architec­tural complexes. The Imperial Forum, with the new Hofburg and the museums opposite to it, was perhaps to be the peak creation under the project.

The most important architects concerned in the build­ing of the Ring, with their main works, were as follows:Heinrich Ferstel (Votivkirche, 1856-79; the palace of Prince Victor, 1863-1869; the Wertheim Palace, 1864-1868; the Museum of Arts and Crafts, 1868-1869; the University, 1878-83); Edward van der Null and August von Sicardsburg (the Opera House, 1861-1868; the Musikverein, 1867-1869; theEpstein Palace, 1870-1873); Theophil Hansen (Parliament, 1873-83; the Borse, 1874-1877); F. Schmidt (Rathaus-City hall-1872-1883); C. Hasenauer and G. Semper (Kunsthistorisches Museum and Naturhistorisches Museum, 1872-81; Burgtheater, 1874-88; the Neue Hofburg, 1882-1913, finished by F. Ohmann and L. Baumann); F. Fellner, senior (Handelsakademie, 1860-1862); A. Weber (Kunstler-haus, 1865-1868); A. Wielemans (the Justizpalast, 1875-81); J. Romano, A. Schwendenwein, L. Forster, C. Tietz (the last four are known mainly for their private houses). In this list the distinctions between the Romantic and the late Eclectic (composite) styles have not been taken into account. Many of the above-mentioned architects have left us important works also in the old town. The castle complex was completed by Kirschner with the Michaelertrakt in 1889-93.

The development of the Ring also offered excellent opportunities for sculptors. Several monuments and fountains were designed by A. D. Femkom, K. Zum-busch and C. Kundmann.

The last revivalist phase, the Restoration period, came in the late i9th century. Its outstanding representative, L. Baumann, completed the Hofburg (1907-13) and built the Ministry of War (1909-13), today the seat of ministries. O. Wagner and his contemporaries, the pioneers of Jugendstil also began to attract attention. In the Stubenring, the last section to be built up, the two trends practically run into each other. The Sezession (J. M. Olbrich, 1897-1898), the Wienflufiportal (F. Ohmann, 1903-1906), the Postsparkasse (Post Office Savings Bank, 0. Wagner, 1904-1906), the church near the Steinhof (1904-7) and the spectacular Loos-Haus in Michaelerplatz (1910-1911) are marked examples of the new trend, which continued to influence architecture for decades.

After many centuries of separate development, the city centre and the suburbs were finally joined by the Ring. The fact that both territories came under its power­ful influence led to a lasting process of transformation. Houses and flats that fell vacant in the city centre were usually converted into business premises, and several large stores were built, which naturally meant a decline in the population of the central districts.

In the suburbs, behind the dwelling houses of crafts­men, a second line of 'backyard' workshops developed with tenements attached to them. The price of land and rent levels varied from district to district, strongly affecting the social make-up of the population. Business, especially the retail trade, developed in the suburban centres along the architecturally important axes. The larger industrial enterprises which had no room to expand began to move to other districts. The suburbs grew with unprecedented rapidity. The development of the Ring also entailed infrastructural projects (water, sewage, roads, bridges, parks, etc.). To curb the danger of flooding, work on the control of the Danube was started (1870-1875). The construction of road and railway bridges over the river made it easier to reach the settlements on the left bank of the Danube. With the incorporation of District X in 1874, Vienna oufgrew ifs old defence sys­tem. The city's inhabitants began moving outwards, and some suburbs were developed as summerresorts. The urbanization of the suburbs led in turn to a second exten­sion of the capital in 1892, whereby, the city grew to three times its previous area and consisted of 19 districts. The number of inhabitants increased to 1,341,897. The expansion made it possible for the capital on the Danube to grow into a metropolis of European rank. The im­plementation of the resolution is linked with the name of Dr Karl Lueger.

Public utility projects included the city gasworks (1899), municipalization of the horse-tram services (1897) and tram electrification (1902). The building of a second spring-water conduit-system (1900-10) extended the mains water supply to the suburbs. In 1904 the capital succeeded in annexing the village,of Floridsdorf on the left bank of the Danube, despite a rival plan to make it the provincial capital of Lower Austria. This. opened up further prospects for expansion on the far side of the river. In 1905 a green belt was established around the city. Already in 1893 Vienna had been zoned according to land use (residential, industrial, etc.) under powers accorded by an act in 1883. At the same time building heights had been set for each area of the city. Now the regulations were also applied to the suburbs. A competi­tion was conducted for the implementation of a general development plan based on the newly determined zones and the acts passed. In the course of this procedure widespread disputes arose over the old city. One party demanded that it should be radically reconstructed, as the centre of Paris had been. The other wished it to be as a historic monument. In the end, the old city was saved by the absence of an Expropriation Act, and only minor transformations were carried out in its area.

In 1892 a commission was formed to deal with trans­port problems, among them with the building of a mu­nicipal electric railway. Implementation was put in the hands of Otto Wagner, who fought for, and attained, the partial covering over of the River Wien.

When the First World War ended in 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed. Vienna became the capital of the Austrian Republic and in 1922 an indepen­dent federal province within it. Its extensive growth was arrested by the loss of its role as imperial capital. With the introduction of universal suffrage for the election of the city council in 1919 the Social Democrats obtained an absolute majority which, with the exception of the years of Austrian fascism and national socialism (1934-1945), they have retained to this day.

Perhaps no other city's public administration attracted the attention of the world to such an extent as Vienna's during the 1920s. The most important changes in archi­tecture and town planning were brought about by the launching of a communal housing project. The purchase of certain large areas of land brought lasting changes to the city's structure. An example was the building of the huge communal housing estate along the Margareten-glirtel, stretching as far as Ebersdorf, in the 1920s. The most important project of the time, the Karl-Marx-Hof in Heiligenstadt, was built on vacant land and for a long time regarded as a model for public housing. Between 1919 and 1934 a total of 337 housing estates containing more than 63,000 flats were built. At first the pupils of Otto Wagner had a decisive say in their planning. For several reasons they deliberately refrained from adding new suburbs. Between 1934 and 1938 housing construc­tion was suspended, but important roads and bridges were built, among them the mountain roads in the neighbourhood of the Vienna Woods. The national socialist city development project of 1938, parts of which were reversed in 1946-54, was a reaction to the further growth of the built-up area around the city.

Although after the Second World War housing con­struction continued with unchanged intensity in a series of building, country planning and reconstruction proj­ects, the character of these activities and indeed of the whole period was determined by the need to meet the new economic and transport demands, rather than by housing problems. However, new housing estates, partly of a suburban character, were built, mainly in the south­ern part of the city and in the areas beyond the Danube, while around the perimeters large industrial and trading estates were established. This led to a separation of the residential and industrial zones, but at the same time improved the supply position. Local and inter-urban communications were facilitated by the construction of transport means, express lines and motorways. More recently the development of pedestrian zones has given a new aspect to certain outer areas of the city, as traffic has been diverted from the city centre. Since 1979 Vienna is the third headquarters of the United Nations Organisation.

Библиографический список

1. О.Н. Мусихина, О.Г. Гисина, В.Л. Яськова, Английский язык для строителей. Ростов-на-Дону, Феникс, 2004

2. Nicolaus Pevsner. A History of Building Types. The USA, Princeton University Press. Thames & Hudson, 1997

3. Patrick Nuttgens. The Story of Architecture. London, Phaidon Press Limited, 1997

4. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture

5. The Oxford – Duden English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 1985

6. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2002 Deluxe Edition

7. Е.Н. Безручко. Английский для архитекторов. Пособие по английскому языку для студентов архитектурных специальностей вузов. – Ростов н/Д: Издательский центр «МарТ», 2002г.

8. англо-русский политехнический словарь. Под ред. А.Е. Чернухина. – М., 1976г. архитекторов.

ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

PART I

PART II

PART III

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