Successive clauses or sentences start with the same word(s)

The same word or phrase is used to begin successive clauses or sentences. Thus, the reader's / listener's attention is drawn directly to the message of the sentence.

Example:

Every child must be taught these principles. Every citizen must uphold them. And every immigrant, by embracing these ideals, makes our country more, not less, American. ⁽²⁾

If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not sometimes taste of adversity, prosperity would not be so welcome. (AnneBradstreet)

The beginning of wisdom is silence. The second step is listening. (unknown)

A man without ambition is dead. A man with ambition but no love is dead. A man with ambition and love for his blessings here on earth is ever so alive. (PearlBailey)

Anaphora is often used in conjunction with parallelism or climax.

8.What is epiphora?

Epiphora is an exact counterpart of another figure of speech anaphora. “Fie, fie, thou shamest thy shape, thy love, thy wit,
Which, like a userer, abound’st in all,
And uses none in that true sense indeed
Which should bedeck thy shape, thy love, thy wit. ”

(Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare)
Again, Shakespeare is at his best in using epiphora; “ thy shape, thy love, thy wit ” comes twice within four lines. It puts much emphasis on three attributes of Romeo. Friar Laurence is at his best when he speaks this dialogue.

In poetic and prose works, often you have observed the words or phrases appear repeatedly in a sequence towards the end of sentences, clauses, verses or lines. This repetition is known as epiphora that is used to emphasize an idea or a point, such as, “I scream, you scream, we all scream for ice cream.” Epiphora is a rhetorical device popular with another name that is epistrophe.

9.What is framing or ring repetition?

framing or ring repetition – the repetition of the same unit at the beginning and at the end of the same sentence (a …, … a). Repetition emphasizes the most important part of the utterance, rendering the emotions of the speaker or showing his emotive attitude towards the object described.

10.What is pleonasm?

Pleonasm is derived from a Greek word that means “ excess ”. It is a rhetorical device which can be defined as the use of a second or more words (phrase) to express an idea. These words are redundant such as in the following examples of pleonasm, “burning fire” and “black darkness.” Sometimes, pleonasm is also called tautology, which is the repetition of words.

There are two types of pleonasm as given below:

1. Syntactic Pleonasm

This occurs when the grammatical language makes specific functional words optional such as;

“I know you will come.”
“I know that you will come.”

In the given pleonasm examples, the conjunction, “that” is optional while joining a verb phrase with a sentence. Although both sentences are correct grammatically, however, the conjunction “that” is pleonastic.

2. Semantic Pleonasm

The semantic pleonasm is related more to the style of the language than the grammar such as given below.

“I am eating tuna fish burger.”

Here tuna is itself a name of fish, and there is no need to add word “fish”. Therefore, thewordfishispleonasticinthesentence.

11.What is tautology?

Tautology is a repetitive use of phrases or words which have similar meanings. In simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea or saying two or more times. The word tautology is derived from the Greek word “tauto” (the same) and “logos” (a word or an idea).There are several types of tautology which are commonly used in everyday life, in poetry, in prose, in songs, and in discussions depending on the requirements of a situation. Some of the common categories are:

Due to inadequacies in Language

Intentional ambiguities

Derision

As a Poetic Device

Psychological significance

Used by inept Speakers

Tautology is often confused with repetition. Some authorities say the latter uses the same words while the former uses words with similar meanings. That tautology is the repetition not of words but of ideas. Others say, there is no clear distinction between the two. That tautology includes the repetition of words. To understand this better, read the following examples of Tautology.

Example #1

”Your acting is completely devoid of emotion.”

Devoid is defined as “completely empty”. Thus, completely devoid is an example of Tautology.

Example #2

“ Repeat that again ” and “ reiterate again ”
To repeat or reiterate something is to do or say something again.

12.What is Asyndeton?

Asyndeton is derived from a Greek word asyndeton which means unconnected. It is a stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases and in the sentence, yet maintain the grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase and presents it in a concise form. It started to be seen in Greek and Latin literature.

Asyndeton examples may be classified into two types

A. One type of asyndeton is used between words, phrases and a sentence.
For example: “Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure?”
(Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1 by William Shakespeare)

B. Second type is used between sentences or clauses.
For example: Without looking, without making a sound, without talking
(Oedipus at Colonus by Sophecles)

Go, shepherd, and untie the wattled cotes!
No longer leave thy wistful flock unfed,
Nor let thy bawling fellows rack their throats,
Nor the cropp’d herbage shoot another head…..
Thou hast not lived, why should’st thou perish, so?
Thou hadst one aim, one business, one desire;
Else wert thou long since numbered with the dead……!

This is a good example of asyndeton. The conjunctions are missing in the sentences, such as the second and sixth lines are not connected with adjoining words, like and, are, so etc. However, itproducesspeedinthepoem.

13.What is Polysyndeton?

Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day conversations.

The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning “bound together”. It makes use of coordinating conjunctions like “and”, “or”, “but” and “nor” (mostly and and or) which are used to join successive words, phrases or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used where they might have been omitted. For example, in the sentence “We have ships and men and money and stores,” the coordinating conjunction “and” is used in quick succession to join words occurring together. In a normal situation, the coordinating conjunction “and” is used to join the last two words of the list and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by a comma.

“And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver, and the garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses, and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had.” (The Bible)

This is among the best examples of polysyndeton found in classical or religious text. See how the conjunction “and” has been used in quick succession to join all the items given in this text.

14.Name the style that has the following 3 subdivisions: 1) the style of humanitarian sciences; 2) the style of "exact" sciences; 3) the style of popular scientific prose

The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:1) the style of humanitarian sciences;2) the style of "exact" sciences;3) the style of popular scientific prose.Its function is to work out and ground theoretically objective knowledge about reality. The aim of communication is to create new concepts, disclose the international laws of existence. The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness. The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional. Grammar: The logical presentation and cohesion of thought manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax is the use of established patterns. - postulatory; - formulative; - argumentative; The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. In humanities we may come across constructions but few. Some features of the style in the text are: - use of quotations and references; - use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas. Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style.

15.What is an essay?

The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. It never goes deep into the subject, but merely touches upon the surface. Personality in the treatment of theme and naturalness of expression are 2 of the most obvious characteristics of the essay. An essay is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter. This literary genre has definite linguistic traits which shape the essay as a variety of publicistic style.

In the 19^th century the essay as a literary term gradually changed into what we now call the journalistic article or feature article which covers all kinds of subjects from politics, philosophy or aesthetics to travel, sport and fashions. Feature articles are generally published in newspapers, especially weeklies and Sunday editions.

In comparison with oratorical style, the essay aims at a more lasting, hence at a slower effect

What is an article?

Irrespective of the character of the magazine and the divergence of subject matter – whether it is political, literary, popular-scientific or satirical, all the features of publistic style are to be found in any article. The character of the magazine as well as the subject chosen affects the choice and use of stylistic devices. There are popular scientific articles, satirical articles, political magazine articles, newspaper articles, etc.

Literary reviews stand closer to essay both by their content and by their linguistic form. More abstract words of logical meaning are used in them, they more often resort to emotional language and less frequently to traditional set expressions.

17.Name a style that is a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a separate unity that basically serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. To attract the reader’s attention specific headlines, space ordering, a large proportion of dates, personal names of countries, institutions, and individuals are used.

Newspaper style is a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a separate unity that basically serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. To attract the reader’s attention specific headlines, space ordering, a large proportion of dates, personal names of countries, institutions, and individuals are used. Since the primary function of newspaper style is to impart information, only printed matter serving this purpose comes under newspaper style proper. Such matter can be classed as: a) Brief news items The function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. It has its specific vocabulary features and is characterized by an extensive use of special political and economic terms; non-term political vocabulary; newspaper cliché; abbreviations; neologisms. b) The headline. The headline is the title given to a news item of a newspaper article. The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news that follows is about. Syntactically headlines are very short sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns: interrogative sentences; nominative sentences; elliptical sentences; sentences with articles omitted; phrases with verbals; complex sentences; c) Advertisements and announcements. The function is to inform the reader. There are 2 basic types of them: classified and non-classified (separate). In classified various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name.As for the separate, the variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all be pointed out. d) The editorial bears the stamp of both the newspaper style and the publistic style. The function is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of certain facts. Emotional coloring is achieved with the help of various SD (metaphors and epithets), both lexical and syntactical, the use of which is largely traditional.

18.What is headline?

The headline is the title given to a news item of a newspaper article. The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news that follows is about.Syntactically headlines are very short sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns: interrogative sentences; nominative sentences; elliptical sentences; sentences with articles omitted; phrases with verbals; complex sentences;

19.What is the main function of Advertisements and announcements?

The function is to inform the reader. There are 2 basic types of them: classified and non-classified (separate).In classified various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name.As for the separate, the variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all be pointed out.

20.Name the five FS styles that Galperin gave

Galperin distinguishes five styles in present-day English:
I. Belles Lettres (беллетристика)
1. Poetry
2. Emotive prose
3. The Drama
III. Publicistic Style
1. Oratory and Speeches
2. The Essay
3. Articles
IV. Newspapers
1. brief News Items (короткие новости)
2. Headlines
3. Advertisements and Announcements (объявления)
4. The Editorial (редакторская статья)
V. Scientific Prose
VI. Official Documents

21.What is Functional Style?

According to I.R. Galperin, a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A functional style should be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of the language. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant and can deviate from the invariant, even breaking away with it.

The classification of FS is a very complicated problem, that is why we will consider ideas of I.V.Arnold and I.R. Galperin, bearing in mind that Galperin treats functional styles as patterns of the written variety of language thus excluding colloquial FS. Both scholars agree that each FS can be recognized by one or more leading features. But Galperin pays more attention to the coordination of language means and stylistic devices whereas Arnold connects the specific features of each FS with its peculiarities in the sphere of communication.

22.What is slang?

from Scandivavian word meaning "offensive language" Intentional, used in some marginal social situation. Thieves' cant (peddlers in old Russia.) Dialect is natural, unintentional; jargon and slang are to test who belongs to the group. Slang, unlike jargon is linked not only to what is said but also to 1) desire not to be understood by the uninitiated. 2) to the desire of the group to mark its own originality and uniqueness, to test who belongs to the group. People feel that they are part of a select group. Some originally slang words may become part of the standard language-- joke, boom, fad, bubble.

Ethnic or social dialects can also take on some of the characteristics of slang, and may be deliberately be cultivated by speakers as a special mark if group identity (Cf, some forms of Black English). Most social dialects, however, such as the working-class dialect in England (cockney), differ from slang because they are the way a group naturally speaks and are not a deliberate attempt to be different.

Even languages which consist of a single form have rules about using language. This set of rules is known as speech etiquette; which defines what topics can be spoken about in what situations and what words should be used. The timing and manner of saying something is often socially important. Not speaking-- silence --often has specific, deliberate function in societies: Apaches do not respond verbally to yelled insults; they are silent when meeting strangers.

Words which have social restrictions on their usage are said to be stylistically marked. (cf. greetings in Russian and English: Hi, Hello, How do you do?) Two types of stylistically marked categories are taboo words and euphemisms.

24.What is Allusion?

Allusion is used to explain or clarify a complex problem. Note that allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something the reader / audience is familiar with, e.g.:

famous people

history

(Greek) mythology

literature

the bible

If the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enough to create a certain picture (or scene) in the readers’ minds. The advantages are as follows:

We don’t need lengthy explanations to clarify the problem.

The reader becomes active by reflecting on the analogy.

The message will stick in the reader's mind.

Examples:

the Scrooge Syndrome (allusion on the rich, grieve and mean Ebeneezer Scrooge from Charles Dicken’s “Christmas Carol”)

The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from Greek mythology)

Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) (allusion on the biblical Ark of Noah)

Many allusions on historic events, mythology or the bible have become famous idioms.

Examples:

to meet one’s Waterloo (allusion on Napoleons defeat in the Battle of Waterloo)

to wash one’s hands of it. (allusion on Pontius Pilatus, who sentenced Jesus to death, but washed his hands afterwards to demonstrate that he was not to blame for it.)

to be as old as Methusalem (allusion on Joseph’s grandfather, who was 969 years old according to the Old Testament)

to guard sth with Argus’s eyes (allusion on the giant Argus from Greek mythology, who watched over Zeus’ lover Io.)

25.What is Citation?

26.What is Alliteration?

Alliteration is a stylistic device whereby a series of words begin with the same consonant sound, which can help your audience's listening.

The game of Tic Tac Toe is a perfect example of alliteration, where each word of the game's

name begins with the letter T.

Phrases like "busy as a bee," "drop dead gorgeous," "friends and family" are all examples of alliteration.

Alliteration adds a textural complexity to your speech that makes your words more engaging. Famous Alliteration in Speech

“I see also the dull, drilled, docile, brutish masses of the Hun soldiery plodding on like a swarm of crawling locusts.” --Winston Churchill on the German invasion of Russia

27.What is the Assonance?

Assonance is one such literary device, where the vowel sounds are repeated to create an internal rhyming within sentences or phrases. Assonance is known to be the building block of verse and is used to increase the stress on a subject or simply to add flare. Examples of assonance are generally hard to find, and hence they serve an ornamental purpose in literature. It is often referred to as medial rhyme or inexact rhyme.

When looking out for examples of assonance, you ought to keep your eye and ear open for the five vowel sounds included in the English language, that is A, E, I, O and U.

Поиск по сайту: