OBJECT CLAUSES

Object clauses are less easily defined and less easily recognizable than either subject or predicative clauses. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that views differ as to what the limits of the notion "object clause" should be. We may try to apply the same criterion that worked well in the case of subject and predicative clauses, viz. omit the subordinate clause and see what part of the sentence is missing and by what part of a simple sentence the vacant position might be occupied. But we shall not always arrive at a clear decision.

The easiest cases are those in which the subordinate clause can be replaced by a noun which would then be an object in a simple sentence. This applies, for instance, to sentences of the type He bought what he wanted. If we drop the subordinate clause what he wanted we get the unfinished sentence He bought..., which has no definite meaning until we add some word that will function as an object. This may of course be any noun denoting a thing that can be bought, for instance, He bought a briefcase. The similarity in syntactical position between a briefcase and the subordinate clause what he wanted appears to be sufficient reason for saying that what he wanted is an object clause. Compare the following example: Owen had grown larger to her: he would do, like a man, whatever he should have to do. (H. JAMES)

The same may be said about the sentence Tom may marry whom he likes. ¹ Here the clause whom he likes may be replaced by any noun that will fit into the context, for instance, by any feminine name: Tom may marry Jane, where Jane will be an object. This, again, seems sufficient reason for stating that the clause whom he likes is an object clause: its syntactical function is the same as that of the noun Jane which we put in its place. This sentence differs from the preceding in one respect: the subordinate clause may be eliminated without the sentence becoming impossible or incomplete: Tom may marry. This of course depends on the meaning of the verb marry, which in the sense 'enter upon a married state' does not necessarily require a noun or pronoun to make the meaning of the sentence complete.

Here are some more examples: And Cecil was welcome to bring whom he would into the neighbourhood. (FORSTER) But Steitler, no more than six or seven years the older as Motley correctly guessed, had made use of his seniority by developing what Motley was quick to recognise as a definite way with him, a generally

¹ O. Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, Part III, p. 62.

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constant manner under cover — or in easy despite — of which he met the world, was recognised always as quite uniquely himself. (BUECHNER) The object clause coming after developing seems to go on as far as the noun manner, where a subordinate clause of the second degree begins, namely an attributive one to this noun. Object clauses of this type are very characteristically English, and in translating such sentences into another language, for example, into Russian, the turn of the sentence has usually to be changed altogether. Compare also: Fes, my father can seldom be prevailed on to give the waters what I think a fair trial. (J. AUSTEN) Give somebody (something) a fair trial is a phraseological unit, with both nominal elements in it necessary for its existence. This has not prevented, in the last example, the substitution of an object clause (what I call a fair trial) for the phrase a fair trial. This plainly shows that the subordinate clause is here exactly similar in function to the object in a simple sentence, and that the term "object clause" is therefore fully justified.

There is also another type of object clause. This is found in sentences having in the main clause a predicate verb which combines almost exclusively with object clauses and only with a very few possible objects (within a simple sentence). A typical verb of this kind is the verb say. Compare the following example: She could not say what is was. (LAWRENCE) If we drop the subordinate clause we get the unfinished sentence She could not say... The words that can come after the verb say and perform the function of object in a simple sentence are very few indeed: these are chiefly the pronouns this, that, anything, everything, and the noun the truth.

On the whole it may be said that subordinate clauses are much more characteristic of the verb say than an object in a simple sentence.

The same may be said about the verb ask. If we take the sentence She asked whether this was true, and drop the subordinate clause, we shall get the unfinished sentence She asked... The possibilities of completing this sentence by means of an object within the framework of a simple sentence are again very limited: there may be the pronouns this, that, something, nothing, and the noun a question. In this case, too, a subordinate clause is much more characteristic of the verb than an object in a simple sentence. Compare also the following example: He merely suggested that Motley's peculiar gifts tended to make him animate and inflate whatever might, seem to him the most appealing among the host of potentialities attending any unextraordinary human situation; that if, as certainly might be the case, there were validity in his suspicions, he, Tristram, could be no more than very interested to hear of it. (BUECHNER) The object clause, whatever might seem to him the most appealing among the host of potentialities attending any unextraordinary human situation, is rather long; yet it does not pro-

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duce any difficulty for the reader to identify the that which comes immediately after it as a conjunction parallel to the first that (the one coming after suggested) and, consequently, to range the clause introduced by the second that as standing on the same level as the first that- clause (that Motley's peculiar gifts...).

The idea will naturally suggest itself of treating the subordinate clause as the typical element following the verb say or ask, rather than as something to be defined by comparing it to an object in a simple sentence.

Now let us pass on to the verbs with which a subordinate clause is the only formation that can follow them to express the contents of the action expressed by the verb.

The verb exclaim is a case in point. Completing it by a word functioning as an object in a simple sentence is impossible: none of the words suggested for the verbs say and ask will do here. Neither the pronouns this, that, something, everything, nor any noun could come after the verb exclaim. So if we apply the criterion which served for the preceding verbs, we cannot find an object of this kind in a simple sentence with this verb and argue that, since the subordinate clause is identical in function to that object, it is bound to be an object clause. The argument in favour of the view that it is an object clause would then have to be more far-fetched and it would have to be something like this: the subordinate clause after the verb exclaim is an object clause because its syntactical function is similar to that of the subordinate clause after the verb say or ask, and that clause is to be recognised as an object clause because its function is the same as that of a few pronouns and nouns which can come after the verb say or ask in a simple sentence.

Now this argument may or may not be found convincing. If it is, all clauses of this kind after the verbs exclaim, wonder, and a number of other "verba sentiendi et declarandi" will have to be accepted as object clauses (which of course is the traditional view). If it is not found convincing the subordinate clauses after such verbs will have to be taken as a special type of clauses, which in this case will not fit into the system of subordinate clause parallel to parts of a simple sentence but will have to be organised on some other principle. They might be termed "subordinate clauses of indirect speech". This is a possible view but it entails some inconvenience. In the first place, this type of clause would remain outside the system which is based on analogy with parts of a simple sentence; secondly, if we recognise clauses of indirect speech as a separate type, we shall obviously have to include in it the clauses following the verbs say, ask, etc. as well, though with these verbs a few pronouns and nouns are possible as objects in a simple sentence.

In this case, as in so many others, no binding decision is possible: the solution a scholar arrives at will largely depend on his

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own opinion of the relative value of the arguments brought forward in favour of this or that view.

Occasionally an object clause may come before the main clause:.. .whatever courtesy I have shown to Mrs Hurtle in England I have been constrained to show her. (TROLLOPE) In this example the object clause, which of course depends on the predicate have been constrained to show of the head clause, comes first. This is a clear indication that the object clause represents the theme of the sentence, whereas the rheme is represented by the head clause, and the most important element in this rheme is of course the word constrained. In fact the essential meaning of the sentence might have been put briefly in these words: My courtesy to Mrs Hurtle was constrained. In that case the theme would be represented by the subject group, and the rheme by the predicate.

In speaking of object clauses, special attention must be paid to clauses introduced by prepositions. These clauses may be termed prepositional object clauses, on the analogy of prepositional objects in a simple sentence.

We must note that a prepositional object in a simple sentence does not always correspond to a prepositional object clause: for instance, the verb insist, which always combines with the preposition on (or upon) in a simple sentence, never has this preposition when followed by an object clause.

Most verbs, however, which combine with a preposition in a simple sentence, do so in a complex sentence as well: a case in point is the verb depend, which always combines with the preposition on (or upon), no matter what follows: compare It depends on what you will say, It depends on whether you will come. Here are some examples: The conversation was as brief and uncomplicated as that, freed from whatever implication the memory of their earlier encounter might have added to it. (BUECHNER) This is a peculiarly English way of putting it, and it appears to be more idiomatic than the other way, which, however, is also possible, namely, The conversation was as brief and uncomplicated as that, freed from any implication that the memory of their earlier encounter might have added to it.

The following example is very illuminating since a prepositional clause going with the verb think is then followed by prepositional objects within the main clause: He thought for a few minutes of what she had said — of Arthur's rottenness — socially and personally — and of all that they stood for — individually alive, socially progressive. (A. WILSON) As the prepositional clause of what she had said stands on the same syntactic level as the prepositional phrases of Arthur's rottenness and of all that they stood for (the latter including an attributive subordinate clause), it is quite clear that their functions are identical, that is, the clause is an object clause.

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A prepositional clause is also found in this sentence from a novel by A. Trollope: After what had passed, young Round should have been anxious to grind Lucius Mason into powder, and make money of his very bones! After what had passed clearly performs the same function in the sentence that would be performed, say, by the prepositional phrase after these events in a simple sentence. Since that prepositional phrase would have been an adverbial modifier of time (and this is seen from the lexical meanings of the words making it up), the same function must be ascribed to the prepositional clause that we have here.

Compare also the following example: He questioned me on what Caroline had said. (SNOW) By substituting a phrase for the clause introduced by the preposition on, we get a simple sentence with a prepositional object, e. g. He questioned me on Caroline's opinion. So the prepositional clause is clearly shown to be the equivalent, in a complex sentence, of a prepositional object in a simple one. Compare also the following example: How far back did you burrow, Julia? To when our hearts were young and gay at Wellesley? (TAYLOR)

An example of the syntactical equivalence of a word (or phrase) and a clause is also seen in the following sentence.

Vitiate the minds or what pass for the minds of the people with education, teach them to read and write, feed their imaginations with sexual and criminal fantasies known as films, and then starve them in order to pay for these delightful erotic celluloids. (A. WILSON) What pass for the minds stands obviously in the same relation as the minds, on the one hand to the words of the people with education, and on the other to the verb vitiate, to which both of them are objects. The syntactic equivalence of the noun the minds and the clause what pass for the minds is made especially clear by this syntactical tie in two directions. Such examples as these are the strongest argument in favour of classifying subordinate clauses on the same principle as parts of a simple sentence.

In our next example there are no homogeneous parts of this kind, but otherwise the function of the subordinate clause is seen very clearly: I could not write what is known as the popular historical biography. (A. WILSON) The corresponding simple sentence would be, I could not write a popular historical biography. So» if we term the noun a biography the direct object in the latter sentence, there seems to be no reason whatever to deny that the subordinate clause in the former sentence is an object clause. Compare also: I've no doubt about that he is an estimable young man, but I knew nothing about him except what you have told me. (LINKLATER)

Such sentences may be cited as an argument for recognising noun clauses" in Modern English (see above, p. 272 ff.). It is clear that constructions of this kind are only possible if prepositions in

284 Object Clauses and Attributive Clauses

a language do not require any special case and may be followed by practically any kind of word, including a conjunction.

The specific qualities of an object clause as distinct from an object in a simple sentence are not difficult to state.

An object clause (clauses of indirect speech included) is necessary when the notion to be expressed cannot conveniently be summed up in a noun, or a phrase with a noun as its head word, or a gerund and a gerundial phrase, but requires an explicit predicative unit, that is, a subject and a predicate of its own. Or, to put it in a different way: an object clause is necessary when what is to be added to the predicate verb is the description of a situation, rather than a mere name of a thing.

In some cases, though, an object in a simple sentence may have a synonymous object clause, as in the following cases: I heard of his arrival — I heard that he had arrived, etc. The meaning of the two sentences in each case is exactly the same, but there is a certain stylistic difference: the simple sentence with the prepositional object sounds rather more literary or even bookish than the complex sentence with the object clause, which is fit for any sort of style.

A peculiar case of a prepositional object clause is seen in this sentence: George had drunk a. cup of coffee with himself and Simon that morning, had told them of a play he planned to write, then, on to the subject of his weekend, all that he had seen, a good amount of what he had thought or wanted people to think that he had thought, and to the description of a, young man named Steitler. (BUECHNER) The noun amount is head word to a prepositional clause, with two homogeneous predicates, had thought, and wanted; with the second of these predicates there is the complex object people to think, and the infinitive to think is head word to an object clause, that he had thought. Now this had thought in the object clause is understood to have as its object the pronoun what which immediately follows the words amount of. Thus, the word what, while being part of the first-degree subordinate clause, is object to the predicate of the second-degree clause.

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