Electric Power Systems

Electric Power Systems are the systems for the transformation of other types of energy into electrical energy and the transmission of this energy to the point of consumption. The production and transmission of energy in the form of electricity have important economic advantages in terms of cost per unit of power delivered.

Electric power systems also make possible the utilization of hydroelectric power at a distance from the source. Alternating current (AC) is generally used in modern power systems, because it may be easily converted to higher or lower voltages by means of transformers. Thus, each stage of the system can be operated at an appropriate voltage. Such an electric power system consists of six main elements: the power station; a set of transformers to raise the generated power to the high voltages used on the transmission lines; the transmission lines; the substations at which the power is stepped down to the voltage on the subtransmission lines; the subtransmission lines; and the transformers that lower the subtransmission voltage to the level used by the consumer's equipment.

In a typical system the generators at the central station deliver a voltage of from 1000 to 26,000 volts (V); higher voltages are undesirable because of difficulties of insulation and the danger of electrical breakdown and damage.

This voltage is stepped up by means of transformers to values ranging from 138,000 to 765,000 V for the primary transmission line (the greater the voltage on the line, the less the current and consequently the less the power loss, the loss being proportional to the square of the current). At the substation the voltage may be transformed down to levels of 69,000 to 138,000 V for further transfer on the subtransmission system. The voltage is stepped down again by transformers to a distribution level such as 2400 or 4160 V or 15, 27, or 33 kilovolts (kV). Finally the voltage is transformed once again at the distribution transformer near the point of use to 240 or 120 V. The modern development of high-voltage solid-state rectifiers makes possible the economical conversion of high-voltage AC to high-voltage DC for power distribution, thus avoiding capacitive and inductive losses in transmission. The central station of a power system consists of a prime mover, such as a water or steam turbine, which operates an electric generator. Most of the world's electric power in the early 1990s was generated in steam plants driven by coal, oil, nuclear energy, or gas, with lesser percentages generated by hydroelectric, diesel, and internal-combustion plants.

The lines of high-voltage transmission systems are usually composed of wires of copper, aluminum, or copper-clad or aluminum-clad steel, which are suspended from tall latticework towers of steel by strings of porcelain insulators. By the use of clad steel wires and high towers, the distance between towers can be increased, and the cost of the transmission line thus reduced. In modern installations with essentially straight paths, high-voltage lines may be built with as few as six towers to the mile. In some areas high-voltage lines are suspended from tall wooden poles spaced more closely together. For lower voltage subtransmission and distribution lines, wooden poles are generally used rather than steel towers. In cities and other areas where open lines create a hazard, insulated underground cables are used for distribution. Some of these cables have a hollow core through which oil circulates under low pressure. The oil provides temporary protection from water damage to the enclosed wires should the cable develop a leak. Pipe-type cables in which three cables are enclosed in a pipe filled with oil under high pressure (14 kg per sq cm/200 psi) are frequently used. These cables are used for transmission and subtransmission of current at voltages as high as 345,000 V (or 345 kV).

Any electric-distribution system involves a large amount of supplementary equipment for the protection of generators, transformers, and the transmission lines themselves. The system often includes devices designed to regulate the voltage delivered to consumers and to correct the power factor of the system.

To protect all elements of a power system from short circuits and overloads, and for normal switching operations, circuit breakers are employed. These breakers are large switches that are actuated automatically in the event of a short circuit or other condition that produces a sudden rise of current. Because an arc is formed across the terminals of the circuit breaker at the moment when the current is interrupted, some large breakers (such as those used to protect a generator or a section of primary transmission line) are immersed in a liquid dielectric such as oil to quench the arc. In large air-type circuit breakers, as well as in oil breakers, magnetic fields are used to break up the arc. Small air-circuit breakers are used for protection in shops, factories, and in modern home installations. In residential electric wiring, fuses were once commonly employed for the same purpose. The fuse consists of a piece of alloy with a low melting point, inserted in the circuit, which melts, breaking the circuit, if the current rises above a certain value.

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