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Registers of English
- Basic English – spoken by theeducated majority of the population
- Social English – spoken by different social subgroups of the population, cf Jargon
Reproducibility – regular use in speech as the principal form of existence of a linguistic unit; characteristic of a word as distinguished from sentences as most sentences are produced ad hoc while words are reproduced from memory.
Restricted collocation – See Collocation
Rhyme combinations – See Reduplication; Compounds, reduplicative
Root – the semantic nucleus of a word with which no grammatical properties of the word are connected.
Root-morpheme – See Root
S
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis – theory propounded by E.Sapir and B. Whorf which basic postulate is thatthe world in which we live is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group (cf. linguistic relativity)
Scenario -a notion of cognitive semantics (q.v.) referring to a type of concept (q.v.) which reflects some denotata as a situation with possible relationships between the participants of the situation, possible ongoing event, a dynamic frame (the so called predicate names, words of propositional semantics – e.g. holiday, wedding, exam, beat about the bush).
Scheme – a notion of cognitive semantics referring to 1) a type of concept (q.v.) which reflect some denotata in relation (comparison) to some other denotata. – See Frame; 2) See Image scheme; 3) a type of concept;a mental image of an object or phenomenon which has a spatial-contour character; is represented by the meanings of such words as tree, river, man, road. E.g. the concept 'road' is a scheme as it involves the concepts of the departure point and the destination point, and can be represented schematically.
Secondary nomination – the process and the result of derivational processes in the vocabulary, when an already existing name is used for the second time to denote another referent. However, the term is assumed to be incorrect because for each referent the process of nomination is always a primary and the only act of nomination. Although we can speak of secondary (or multiple) use of one the same name in nomination acts.
Secondary signification – according to Prof. M.V. Nikitin,additional element of significative meaning, which is being formed in the structure of lexical meaning of a word as a result of certain restrictions mapped uponthe sphere of referential applicability of this very name and which bears extensional-intentional information about the class of denotata (extralinguistic counterparts), correlating with this meaning: e.g. to moo (of cows), to philander (of men), nubile (of women), auburn (of hair), a troupe (of performers), etc. S.s. characterises a specific layer of extensionally restricted lexical units, which possess bound (restricted) combinability. This is the case when the meaning of the word signifies of its referential applicability. Otherwise the phenomenon is described in terms of 'lexical solidarity', 'bound meaning', 'presupposition', 'covert semantics', 'lexical parameters' and others.
Semantic base (universal s. b.) – a set of universal concepts (semantic primes or semantic primitives;) shared by all linguistic communities; the basic 'atoms' of meaning in terms of which thousands upon thousands of complex meanings are composed and find either lexical or grammatical expression by means of different languages. E.g. I, people, say, have, live, before, etc. (about 60 in total according to A. Wierzbicka).
Semantic component – See Seme
Semantic change – changes of both synchronic and diachronic nature, which concern the semantic content of the word. New meanings would appear by means of semantic shift (q.v.) and semantictransference (q.v.)which lead to the growth of polysemy. Causes for s.ch. can be both extralinguistic and linguistic. – See Secondary nomination; Semantic development of the word
Semantic derivation – a means of word formation by which a new meaning appears within a semantic structure of a word (resulting in polysemy and sometimes in homonymy), an increase in the semantic potential of the word. – See Semantic changes; Semantic shift; Semantic transference
Semantic development/evolution of the word – a diachronic semantic 'life story' of a word – a sum total of semantic changes it underwent. – See Semantic changes
Semantic extension – same as generalization (q.v.), also broadening/widening of meaning.
Semantic field – The earliest definition introduced by German linguist Ipsen (1924) meant a group of words that form some kind of semantic unity. Modern treatments of s.f. involve: a) part (slice) of reality singled out in human experience and, theoretically, covered in language by a more or less autonomous lexical microsystem; b) (otherwise known as lexical field) a whole set of lexemes belonging to a particular area of meaning and reflecting linguistically a certain semantic field. S.f. is assumed, therefore to consist of a lexical field and a conceptual core. A lexical field is organized both by shared conditions determining the denotations of its words and by a conceptual core, by the meanings of what the words denote. A conceptual core is an organized representation of general knowledge and beliefs about whatever objects or events the words denote – about what they are and do; what can be done with them; how they are related; what they relate to. This lexical-conceptual relation is complex. With the rise of prototype theory the properties of the field came to be considered of prototypical nature. S.fs can be formed by different types of systemic relationships between words: synonymic, antonymic, hierarchical, conceptual integrations, associative networks. S.fs are more than a convenient summarizing device. They make possible an extremely flexible access to the information stored in mental lexicon. – See Prototype theory, Conceptual categories; Hierarchical taxonomy
Semantic isolation – the loss by a word, or word combination, of productivity and free combinability; the acquisition of idiomatic qualities.
Semantic level of analysis – bi-aspectual study of linguistic units – both as units of expression and units of content; comprises semasiological and onomaseologicalanalyses (q.v.).
Semantic primitives – See Semantic base
Semantic restructuring – See Contraction
Semantic shift – a type of semantic change (q.v.), opp. to semantic transference (q.v.) when changes in semantics take place within one and the same conceptual sphere. Typology of ss.:
- generalization of meaning (q.v.) /extension/broadening of meaning;
- narrowing of meaning (q.v.) /specialization/specification;
- attitudinal shifts – pejorative and meliorative development (the so-called 'degradation' and 'elevation' of meaning): the acquisition by a word of some derogatory or positive emotive charge and the degradation or improvement of the evaluative connotational component of meaning, sometimes involves changes in denotation. – See Amelioration; Pejoration
Semantic structure of a word – a) of a monosemantic word or of a lexico-semantic variant – a set of interrelated semes. – See Seme; b) of a polysemantic word – a set of lexico-semantic variants, structured as a chain or radial network. – See Polysemy; Concatenation; Irradiation
Semantic transference – type of semantic change when two conceptual spheres are involved: a name for an entity of one conceptual sphere 'is transferred' to serve as a name for an entity from another conceptual sphere. Typical example of s.t. is metaphor (q.v.). – See Cognitive Metaphor; Metaphorization; Secondary nomination
Semantic triangle – graphical representation of the way names and things named are related. C.K.Ogden and I.A.Richards following ancient philosophers presented this relationship as a triangle, joining the thought of reference, referent and symbol as the three apexes of it in the following way:
thought of reference
symbol referent
Other names (in different scholarly approaches to semantic triangle) for the apexes are: thought of reference – concept, signified, notion, content; referent – denotatum, object; symbol – signifier, sign, word, form.
Semantic variation – See Variation, semantic v.
Semantics – 1) the philosophical and linguistic study of meaning. The term is one of a group of English words formed from the various derivatives of the Greek verb semaino (" to mean " or " to signify "). The term s. has ultimately prevailed as a name for the doctrine of meaning, in particular, of linguistic meaning. Semiotic is still used, however, to denote a broader field: the study of sign-using behaviour in general. S. became a general term for several branches of s.:
- cognitive semantics – q.v.;
- general semantics – a philosophy of language meaning, the study of language as a representation of reality. G.s. theory was intended to improve the habits of response to environment. G.s. followers sought a scientific, non-Aristotelian basis for clear understanding of the differences between symbol (word) and reality (referent) and the ways in which words themselves can influence (or manipulate) and limit human ability to think;
- formal semantics – logical or mathematical semantics, the calculation of truth value conditions for logical and mathematical expressions.
2) meaning of words, expressions or grammatical forms. – See Meaning
Semasiological analysis – approach in the study of linguistic semantics in 'formàcontent' direction, the study of cases of polysemy and homonymy; opp. to onomaseological analysis (q.v.).
Semasiology (from Gr. semasia (" signification ") + logos (" account ")) – also semantics 1), the branch of linguistics which studies the semantics of linguistic units.
- synchronic s. – studies the semantics of words on synchronic level, as well as synchronic semantic derivational processes;
- diachronic s. -studies the semantic development (q.v.)of the word;
- stylistic s. – studies the stylistic potential of the word semantics.
Seme (sameas Sememe, Semantic component) – minimal unit of sense, an 'atom' of lexical semantics, distinguished on the basis of oppositions by methods applied in componential analysis. Typology of ss.:
- categorial s.;
- denotative / connotative s.;
- differential s.;
- covert/overt s.;
- occasional s.;
- potential s.
Sememe – See Seme
Semi-affixes – See Bound cases
Semi-morphemes - See Bound cases
Semi-opaque idiom – See Idiom proper
Semio-implicational meanings – occasional senses/meanings which appear when a word is used in an utterance in a certain act of communication. The source of s.-i. meanings is mostly extralinguistic (the knowledge of the current and background situations, of the interlocutor, the prospective/previous development of the events, etc.).
Semiosis – 1) the process of sign formation; 2) the process of signification of a linguistic sign which takes place in the act of nomination (q.v.).There are two modes of s. distinguished in modern linguistics:
- primary s. – endowing a word with meaning in the primary act of nomination;
- secondary s. – appearance of sense (q.v.) in an utterance in a current particular act of communication which involves actualization of meaning of every word in the given utterance and all possible associative, semio-implicational, contextual additions to their virtual meaning.
Semiotics – the study of signs (symbols, icons, signals, etc.).
Sense (end, purpose, significance, purport) – the meaning a word or a phrase acquires in a certain context, as distinct from meaning specified by the dictionary. S. is applicable to actual speech only, to utterances as speech realisation of sentences. S. can not be presented as a sum total of the meanings of utterance constituents, but rather as a result of multiplication and blending of all meaningful elements on the basis of certain speech strategies. The result may even oppose logical meaning of words and standard meaning of grammatical structures. "What a good boy you are!" addressing a window-smasher renders something quite different from appraisal of which the word 'good', emphatic grammatical construction taken separately would be suggestive. The essence of irony, mockery and sarcasm lies in the discrepancy between the meaning of the word or phrase and the sense as actual realisation of this meaning on the broad contextual (both linguistic and extralinguistic) background in speech (actual situation of communication).
Set – a group of words united on different principles:
- lexical set – See Lexical field
- semantic set – See Lexical field
- synonymic set – See Synonyms
Set expressions – See Idiom proper
Sexism – offensive use of words implying sexual affinity of people. Hence there appeared a widespread tendency to replace terms for occupations or titles which are unnecessarily marked for gender (e.g. flight attendant for stewardess), and to substitute - person for - man in words such as chairman, salesman, and spokesman. Opinions vary very widely concerning the desirability of such substitutions. The extending of this tendency to cover words with only tenuous etymological links with sex (e.g. masterpiece, manhandle, manhole) is not generally accepted, and extreme forms such as herstory for history have little place outside specifically feminist writing. – See Bias words; Political correctness; Euphemism
Shades of meaning (same as overtones, types of connotations, connotative implications) – See Connotation
Shift/ semantic shift – See Semantic changes; Semantic shift
Shortening (clipping, curtailment, apheresis/aphesis) – type of word-building; the reduction of a word to one of its parts (whether or not this part has previously been a morpheme), as a result of which the new form acquires some linguistic value of its own. D.Crystal classifies shortened words and some of their types as abbreviations (q.v.). Prof. I.V.Arnold classifies s.w. according to the position of the clipped part:
- final clipping (or apocope from Gr. 'apokoptein' – 'cut off''): ref – referee;
- initial clipping (or aphesis, i.e. apheresis, from Gr. 'aphairesis' – 'a taking away'): cute – acute; fend –defend; chute – parachute;
- medial clipping (or syncope, from Gr. ' syncopé' – 'a cutting up'): maths – mathematics; specs – spectacles;
- combined type: (final + initial clipping) – flu (influenza); tec (detective).
The two words (the full form and the shortened form) can be:
- stylistic synonyms (variants): doc – doctor; San Francisco – Frisco; the Japanese – Japs;
- etymological doublets: chapman - chap; fanatic – fan; fantasy – fancy; mistress – miss;
- intermediate cases.
Shortening can be combined with derivation: nightie – night-dress; teeny – teenager; with ellipsis and substantivization: the big sitdown instead of sitdown demonstration.
Sign – material carriers of meaning, which means that ss. always stand for something else, which we call their meaning. The relation between a sign and its meaning can be of three different kinds – based on contiguity, similarity and convention. This serves the basis for discrimination between three possible signs – indexes, icons and symbols:
- index (indexical sign) (from Gr. 'index' – ' pointing finger') – links form and meaning on the basis of contiguity, when things that are contiguous can stand for each other. The clearest case of an indexical sign is a signpost for traffic pointing in the direction of the next town (so the signpost has the meaning: "Go in this direction to get to Bath"). Facial expressions such as raising one's brows are also indexical signs: they 'point' to a person's internal emotional states of surprise or anger.
- iconic sign (icon) (from Gr. 'eikon' – 'replica') – provides a visual, auditory or any other perceptual image of the thing it stands for, hence applying the general principle of similarity – using an image for a real thing. An iconic sign is similar to the thing it represents (e.g. a road sign that warns drivers to look out for children near a school pictures two children crossing a road on a zebra crossing).
- symbolic sign (symbol) (from Gr. ' symbolon' – 'a token of recognition') – has a conventional link between its meaning and form (military emblems, currency signs – $, ₤, flags, most of the language). The term 'symbolic' as used in linguistics is understood in the sense that, by general consent, people have 'agreed' upon the pairing of a particular form with a particular meaning. – See Law of the sign, Asymmetry of the linguistic sign
Signification – 1)one of the basicnotions of semasiology (q.v.) referring to the virtual ability of linguistic signs to bear the information about their denotata in terms of their indispensable and ascribed properties. According to D. Crystal, s. isthat aspect of word's meaning which stresses that 'sign' function of linguistic expressions. Lexical items are viewed upon as signs within the sign system of language vocabulary. The relationship between sign and thing or sign and concept is s. S. as the word's systemic meaning within the structure of the lexicon is opposed to denotation as what the word is used to name, hence the opposition significatum (q.v.) vs. denotatum (q.v.). When words are used literally in their factual objective primary meanings denotation and s. coincide – are brought into agreement. Semantic changes however go beyond signification, because when words are used to refer to a new object or concept (to name a new thing), they depart from the systematised structure of their meaning (signification), and acquire a new dimension. Their reference (denotation) is thus being extended to bring about new shades or nuances of meaning. It can be the process of semantic derivation or the process of the appearance of new connotations. However, in modern semantics the term s. developed a second (somewhat narrower) reading: 2) significative meaning – type of lexical meaning, non-referential by its nature, which reflects the concept of property/feature as opposed to the concept of class, reflected in denotative meaning (which can thus be termed referential) – See Denotation-2). Significative meaning is actualised primarily by verbs and adjectives, articles, morphemes.
Significative meaning – see Signification-2
Significatum – See Signification-1
Signified – the plane of content of a sign.
Signifier – the plane of expression of a sign.
Simplification (of stems) – morphological process under which a morphologically divisible word becomes an indivisible one, when former morphologically complex structure is no longer identified as such; former affixes are no longer identified as such but become part of the stem (e.g. behave).
Size-of-unit problem – words vary considerably when they become units of different levels of linguistic analysis (lexical, grammatical); the researcher's aim is to consider words as separate and independent units in the flow of speech. The question is whether it is possible to establish objectively where one word ends and another begins in oral speech as words 'flow' and get fused together. E.g., are has been, get up, flower pot univerbs or multiverbal units?
Slang – non-standard vocabulary composed of words or senses characterized primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usually by a currency not limited to a particular region. It is composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties. S. consists of the words and expressions that have escaped from the cant, jargon, and argot (q.v.) (and to a lesser extent from dialectal, nonstandard, and taboo speech) of specific subgroups of society so that they are known and used by an appreciable percentage of the general population, even though the words and expressions often retain some associations with the subgroups that originally used and popularized them. E.g., the American slang to neck (to kiss and caress) was originally student cant; flattop (an aircraft carrier) was originally navy jargon; and pineapple (a bomb or hand grenade) was originally criminal argot.
Sociolect – language spoken by a social group or a class, characterized by lexical, grammatical, phonetic, stylistic peculiarities. – See Idiolect
Sociolinguistics – branch of linguistics studying causation between language and the life of the speaking community; the study of language in relation to social factors.
Sound imitation – See Onomatopoeia
Sound interchange – an opposition in which words or word forms are differentiated due to an alteration in phonemic composition of the root; as means of word formation can be regarded as purely a diachronic one, synchronically it is a basis for contrasting words belonging to the same word-family and different parts of speech or different lexico-grammatical groups. Typology of s.i.:
- ablaut (q.v.);
- umlaut (q.v.);
- consonant interchange caused by phonetic surroundings. E.g. speak v – speech; bake v – batch n; wake v – watch n – due to the fact that the palatal OE [k] very early became [t ] but was retained in verbs because of the position before the consonants [s] and [ ] in the second and third persons singular.
- phonological changes of vowel or consonant: strong – strength; heal – health; steal – stealth; long – length.
Sound symbolism – the use of euphonic effects for stylistic purposes, based on psychologically and psychophysiologically relevant associative correspondences between certain concepts and sounds (e.g. fricative sounds are mostly associated with aggression).
Source domain – See Cognitive metaphor; Metaphorization; Domain, source d.
Source of borrowing – the term is applied to the language from which (or via which) the loan word was taken into English. – See Borrowing, Origin of borrowing
Special lexis – terms, words of certain jargon.
Specialization/specification of meaning – the restriction of the semantic capacity of a word in the course of its historical development; usu. when a generic/hypernymic term becomes a specific/hyponymic one (e.g. deer formerly denoted any animal, now – a species of animals). – See Semantic changes, Semantic shift
Speech – the activity of man using language to communicate with other men, i.e. the use of different linguistic means to convey certain content. Opp. to language.
Split of polysemy (disintegration of polysemy) – the split of a polysemantic unit when no semantic links are identified between lexico-semantic variants (q.v.) which formerly constituted one polysemantic unit.
Stem – that part of a word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm and to which grammatical inflexions and affixes are added.
'Stone-wall' problem – concerns actually two problems: 1) the part-of-speech status of the first element of N+N type of phrase (e.g. stone wall, cannon ball, verb phrase) – whether it is a noun or an adjective or a special part of speech called attribituve noun; 2) whether the combination is a complex word – a compound or it is a free word combination based on syntactic principles – a free phrase. – See Compounds, unstable c.
Stress – See Word stress
Style, functional – See Functional style; Register
Stylistic connotation – when associations triggering connotational semantics of the word concern the situation in which the word is uttered, the social circumstances (formal, familiar, etc.), the social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough), the type and purpose of communication (learned, poetic, official, etc.), the word acquires stylistic connotations. – See Connotation
Stylistic semasiology – analysis of semantics in stylistic purposes; use of semantic capacities of a word in stylistic purposes.
Substantivization (substantivation) – creation of nouns from other parts of speech by means of conversion. E.g. a native, the invisible, too many ifs.
- partial s. – when a substantivized unit functions as a full-fledged noun, acquiring all its morphological categories (e.g. patient);
- complete/full s. – when a substantivized unit does not function as a full-fledged noun, because it does not acquire its morphological categories (the rich, the unthinkable).
Suffix – a post-root morpheme. – See Affix, Morpheme. Typology of ss.:
- productive vs. non-productive;
- grammatical (inflexional) vs. lexical (derivational);
- quasi-grammatical;
- polyfunctional.
Suppletion, lexical – a phenomenon when a stylistically neutral noun of native origin is correlated with a borrowed relative adjective: e.g. home – domestic; son – filial; sun – solar. The semantic relationship between them is quite regular. All these adjectives can characterize something through their relation to the object named by the noun. There exist also adjectives of the same root produced by derivation, but they are qualitative adjectives; besides, only some of them (fatherly, peaceful) show the regular semantic pattern, others (homely) show irregular semantic derivation.
Syllable – a unit of pronunciation uttered without interruption, forming the whole or a part of a word and usu. having one vowel sound often with a consonant or consonants before or after: there are two syllables in water and three in inferno.
Symbol – a) a linguistic element of the semantic triangle, representing the relationship between names and things; s. is a lexical item, a word as a combination of sounds and morphemes, a grammatical word-form, a word-combination, a sentence, an utterance, a text, etc.; b) a type of sign (q.v.).
Syncategorematic word – a functionally dependent (non-notional) word (a preposition, conjunction) as opposed to a functionally independent (notional) word (noun, verb, adjective).
Synchrony – a conventional isolation of a certain stage in the development of language as the object of linguistic investigation.
Synchronic – representing one conventional historical stage in the development of language.
Synecdoche – a figure of speech (metonymy type) in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa (e.g. new faces at the meeting; England lost by six wickets). – See Figurative language
Synonymic assimilation/condensation – parallel development of synonyms. E.g. pejorative meanings acquired by the nouns wench, knave, churl which originally meant 'girl', 'boy', 'labourer' respectively. This loss of 'old dignity' became linguistically possible, because there were so many synonymous terms at hand.
Synonymic dissimilation/differentiation – the diachronic process of synonymic rivalry, when some elements of a synonymic set become obsolete and drop out of use and others survive with a meaning more or less removed from the original one. Opp. to synonymic assimilation (q.v.).
Synonymic dominant – the most general term of its kind potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other members of the group. Not to be confused with hypernym (a generic term), which is relative and serves as the name for the notion of the genus as distinguished from the names of species – hyponyms (q.v.).
Synonymy – the coincidence in the essential meanings of linguistic elements which (at the same time) usually preserve their differences in connotations and stylistic characteristics.
Synonyms – two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some contexts. Their distinctive features can be connotations, stylistic features, distributional or depending on valency. The difference between some synonyms can be marked for register subject-field, mode, and style (tenor) or their combinations. Typology of ss.:
- cognitive synonyms – s. which differ in respect of the varieties of discourse in which they appear; the distinction between such items lies not so much in their inner lexical meaning, but in the sphere of their actual application or usage, as besides the referential basis (referential meaning – q.v.) the actual meanings of the words as found in utterances reflect relations which hold between lexical items within the communicative space, i.e. the functional differentiation of discourse.
- contextual/context-dependent ss. – similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions, when the difference between the meanings of two words is contextually neutralized: e.g. buy and get;
- dialectal ss. – pertaining to different variant of language from dialectal stratification point of view;
- functional ss. – the term is not lexicological proper as it refers to different syntactic units capable of performing one and the same syntactic function (e.g. Subordinate Object Clause and Complex Object constructions are functional synonyms;
- ideographic ss. – differ in shades of meaning, i.e. between which a semantic different is statable;
- stylistic ss. – are distinguished stylistically, i.e. in all kinds of emotional, expressive and evaluative overtones without explicitly displaying semantic difference;
- referential ss. – a vague term, concerns coreferential expressions, when one denotatum can be defined differently from different points of view and in different aspects: e.g. names Walter Scott and the author of 'Ivanhoe' are coreferential because they refer to one and the same denotatum – Sir Walter Scott;
- terminological ss. – two existing terms for one denotatum: e.g. borrowing and loan-word; concept and notion (the difference between them is not discriminated by some linguists);
- total ss .- can replace each other in any given context, without the slightest alteration in denotative or emotional meaning and connotations (e.g. noun and substantive, functional affix, flection and inflection); is a rare occasion.
Syntactic formula – a non-idiomatic sequence of words which structurally resembles a set expression; a cliché, a stereotyped expression mechanically reproduced in speech. – See Polyword
Syntagmatics – linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language. – See Paradigmatics.
System, lexical or vocabulary – lexical system of a language understood not purely as a sum total of all lexical elements in the vocabulary but rather as a set of elements interrelated in various ways and functioning together according to certain laws. It is a coherent homogeneous whole, constituted by independent elements of the same order linked and ordered in certain specific way.
- adaptive s.– capable of adapting itself to current needs of communication.
Systemic relationships in lexis – semantic and non-semantic relations of different order between units of the lexicon: hierarchical taxonomies, antonymic /synonymic groups, lexico-semantic fields/groups, holonyms, meronyms, epidygmatic relationships (q.v.)and the like, which make the system well suited for purposes of communication (speech production + speech perception). – See Non-semantic grouping
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