 |
ÀâòîÀâòîìàòèçàöèÿÀðõèòåêòóðàÀñòðîíîìèÿÀóäèòÁèîëîãèÿÁóõãàëòåðèÿÂîåííîå äåëîÃåíåòèêàÃåîãðàôèÿÃåîëîãèÿÃîñóäàðñòâîÄîìÄðóãîåÆóðíàëèñòèêà è ÑÌÈÈçîáðåòàòåëüñòâîÈíîñòðàííûå ÿçûêèÈíôîðìàòèêàÈñêóññòâîÈñòîðèÿÊîìïüþòåðûÊóëèíàðèÿÊóëüòóðàËåêñèêîëîãèÿËèòåðàòóðàËîãèêàÌàðêåòèíãÌàòåìàòèêàÌàøèíîñòðîåíèåÌåäèöèíàÌåíåäæìåíòÌåòàëëû è ÑâàðêàÌåõàíèêàÌóçûêàÍàñåëåíèåÎáðàçîâàíèåÎõðàíà áåçîïàñíîñòè æèçíèÎõðàíà ÒðóäàÏåäàãîãèêàÏîëèòèêàÏðàâîÏðèáîðîñòðîåíèåÏðîãðàììèðîâàíèåÏðîèçâîäñòâîÏðîìûøëåííîñòüÏñèõîëîãèÿÐàäèîÐåãèëèÿÑâÿçüÑîöèîëîãèÿÑïîðòÑòàíäàðòèçàöèÿÑòðîèòåëüñòâîÒåõíîëîãèèÒîðãîâëÿÒóðèçìÔèçèêàÔèçèîëîãèÿÔèëîñîôèÿÔèíàíñûÕèìèÿÕîçÿéñòâîÖåííîîáðàçîâàíèå×åð÷åíèåÝêîëîãèÿÝêîíîìåòðèêàÝêîíîìèêàÝëåêòðîíèêàÞðèñïóíäåíêöèÿ
Lexico-grammatical meaning – categorial (part-of-speech) meaning, a shared meaning within members of lexico-grammatical group of words (part-of-speech class)
Lexico-grammatical variant – same as lexico-semantic variant (q.v.)
Lexicography – a branch of linguistics studying methods of describing lexical items with the purpose of fixing them in a dictionary; a science and art of dictionary-making. Basic methods distinguished lexical analysis:
- onomasiological – the descriptive study of the ways the cognitive-conceptual sphere is reflected in the lexicon (which meanings are conveyed by which lexemes); deals with ideographic dictionaries;
- semasiological – the descriptive study of the meanings the lexemes convey (which words convey which meanings).
Lexicology – 'science of the word', a branch of linguistics, which basic task is a study and systematic description of vocabulary in respect to its origin, development and current use.
- general l. – part of general linguistics, is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language;
- special l. – the lexicology of a particular language, i.e. the study and description of its vocabulary and vocabulary units, primarily words as the main units of language.; s.l. is based on the principles worked out and laid down by general lexicology, a general theory of vocabulary. S.l. employs synchronic (q.v.) and diachronic (q.v.) aproaches:
- special descriptive l. (synchronic l.) – deals with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time
- special historical l. (diachronic l.) – deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time.
Lexicon, encyclopaedia – a dictionary, a compilation of all the words (and other lexical units) known in the language.
Lexico-semantic/lexical-semantic/lexico-grammatical variant of the word (LSV)– a unit within a polysemantic whole expressing one particular meaning; a word used in speech actualising this particular meaning. a variant of a lexeme characterized by paradygmatic or morphological peculiarities, different valency, different syntactic functions, frequency, form-building paradigm, word-building paradygm, subcategorial part-of-speech status. – See Lexeme; Allolex; Identity-of-unit problem; Philological topology; Polysemy
Linguistic categorization – the way languages reflect natural conceptualization and categorization of objects, events, phenomena of the real world. – See Categorization; Cultural concepts
Linguistic picture of the world – linguistic reflection (in lexicon and grammar) of culture-specific conceptualization of extralinguistic reality. – See Linguistic relativity; Cultural concepts
Linguistic relativity – the idea of the autonomy of language and thought, the admittance of the crucial role of the language in determining our conception of the world. – See Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Linguostylistics – a branch of linguistics studying the use of linguistic units for expressive purposes. – See Stylistic semasiology
Litotes/understatement – a figure of speech, which may be defined as expressing the affirmative by the negation of its contrary, conscious understatement in which emphasis is achieved by negation; examples are the common expressions 'not bad! ' (for 'good'), 'not small' (for 'great') and 'no coward' (for 'brave'). – See Figurative language
Loaded language – the extended use of the vocabulary highly charged with connotations. – See Doublespeak; Political Correctness
Loan translations/calques – borrowing by means of literally translating words (usually one part after another) or word combinations, by modeling words after foreign patterns.
Loan words/borrowed words – See Borrowing
M
Mapping – See Lexical mapping
Marker – a categorial seme (semantic component) (q.v.) within the semantic structure of a word referring to features which the word has in common with other lexical items. E.g. for the words to float, to swim, to sail the common marker would be 'to move in water'. – See Componential analysis; Distinguisher
Meaning – the reverberation in the human consciousness of an object, a quality of extralinguistic reality (a phenomenon, a relationship, a quality, a process) which becomes a fact of language because of its constant indissoluble association with a definite linguistic expression. M. conveyed by a speaker is the speaker's communicative intent in using an expression, even if that use departs from the expression's meaning. Accordingly, any discussion of m. should distinguish speaker's m. from linguistic m. – See Sense. There exist a number of definitions of meaning:
- a reciprocal relation between name and sense, which enables them to call up one another (St.Ullmann);
- function in a context. Meaning, then, we use the whole complex of functions which a linguistic form may have (J.R.Firth);
- a function of the descriptions at all levels (M.A.K.Halliday) and many others.
Typology of ms.:
- actual m. – opp. to virtual (systemic) m., actualized in speech, specified by linguistic and situational context;
- associative m. – similar to connotation (q.v.), weak implication, a conceptual entity to which the systemic m. of a given word merely hints, indirectly implies, which is triggered by association;
- basic m. – see nominative m.
- bound m. – actualised by a word in a given phrase or context, predetermined by semantic or morphosyntactic combinability (or collocationally and colligationally bound) – See Collocation; Colligation;
- broad m. – resulting from generalization of m. (q.v.), when a word develops the broadest referential capacity possible (e.g. way. thing, body, do, have); further stage is deemantization and loss of purely lexical m., transformation of a lexical unit into a grammatical morpheme – grammaticalization (q.v.);
- categorial m. – part-of-speech meaning;
- cognitive m. – a) same as conceptual or denotative or nominative or main meaning; b) the conceptual core, significative part of m. reflecting essential features of the referent conceptualised by our cognition; distinct from pragmatic m.;
- c olligationally and collocationally conditioned m. (Acad. V.V. Vinogradov's term) – are not 'free' but 'bound' ones in the sense that they are determined by morphosyntactic and lexical-phraseological combinability. Some meanings are realised only within a given morpho-syntactic pattern (colligation), e.g. the verb to tell when used in a passive construction displays its colligationally conditioned meaning 'to order, to direct – You must do what you are told'. Similarly, there are meanings which depend on the word's association with other lexical units (collocation). Here the idiom principle is the leading one because the co-occurrence range of the word is determined not only by its meaning, but also, to a great extent, by the conventions of its use: e.g. milk is never rancid, but sour (see secondary signification). The verb to raise acquires a collocationally bound meaning ('to grow plants' or 'keep animals') when used in combinations, such as raise wheat/ pigs / cattle. When combine with the nouns hopes / consciousness / awareness, its meaning changes: The conference is intended to raise people's awareness of Aids. – See bound m.
- conceptual m. - same as cognitive or denotative or nominative or main meaning;
- connotative (connotational) m. – See Connotation
- contentionalm. – reflects the structure of essential features of a notion, name.
- contextual (contextually-bound) m. – triggered/brought in by the contextual (both verbal and non-verbal) environment of the word; acquired on a definite occasion only;
- core m. – same as cognitive or denotative or nominative or main meaning;
- denotative (denotational) m. – See Denotation
- derived (derivational) m. – See nominative-derivative m;.
- direct m. – the main meaning of the word which appears in the act of primary semiosis; opp. to transferred (derived, figurative) m. which appears as a result of semantic derivation/semantic development processes (q.v.) and secondary nomination (q.v.). – See nominative m.;
- dynamic m. – actually, any m. is characterized by certain dynamism – ability to change either synchronically or diachronically, so that it would not be correct to discriminate between systemic (dictionary, virtual) m. as being static and speech (actual, actualized) m. as dynamic, although in a current speech event m. is necessarily subject to contextual (both linguistic and extralinguistic) influence hence actual is more dynamic than virtual/systemic m.;
- emotive m. – See Connotation, emotive;
- encyclopaedic m. – opp. to naive m. (q.v.), conveys the exhaustive information about an object, event or phenomenon, expert's knowledge of the denotatum which only professionals possess (cf. the meaning of the word 'atom' as understood by a physicist and by a actress). Lexical m. does not cover the e.m., actually, lexical m. has nothing to do with the e.m. To understand the m. of the word 'salt' you are not obligatorily to be an expert in chemistry and remember that NaCl is the chemical formula for salt and 'salts' are quite peculiar chemical substances not necessarily intended for cooking purposes. – See next m., further m.
- etymological m. – original m. of a word, which later on underwent semantic changes;
- evaluative m. – See Connotation, evaluative
- expressive m. – See Connotation,expressive
- extensional m. – a number of denotata to which a certain name refers to.
- furtherm. – m. or meanings within the prospective scope of semantic changes (only vaguely) predetermined by the current semantics of the word, the prospective sphere of its semantic variation; - see next m.;
- figurative m. – See direct m.; Figurative language
- free m. – nominative m. (q.v.)can be regarded as 'free' as distinct from the collocational and colligational meanings as bound (q.v.)ones;
- functional m. – grammatical meaning of a word (word-like unit) as an element of syntax, predetermined by its categorial (q.v.), subcategorial and individual lexical m.;
- generic m. – reflection in lexical m. of a generic concept, concept of the higher level of abstraction;
- grammatical m. – m. of a grammatical form of a word;
- idiomatic m. – m., actualized within a certain idiomatic expression only, idiomatically bound m.;
- lexical m. – m. of a lexical unit, comprises categorial m., subcategorial m. and individual m. of a lexeme; reflects a certain part of a corresponding concept on the level of language;
- lexico-grammatical m. – same as categorial m. (q.v.), part-of-speech m.;
- main m. – See nominative m;
- naive m. – lexical m. as represented in the mind of a common native speaker, not an expert in the field which includes the denotatum of the word – see encyclopaedic m.
- next m. – m. or meanings within the actual scope of semantic derivation of a lexeme, easily predetermined or expected by the core semantics (lexical prototype) of the word;
- nominative m. – also basic, main, direct, conceptual, cognitive m. of the word, referring to objects, phenomena, actions and qualities in extralinguistic reality (referent) and reflecting their general understanding by the speaker (can be correlated with referential, denotative, descriptive, factual, objective m.); realization of the word's nominative capacity (to serve as a name for some extralinguistic entity). The n.m. also has the following 'free' authentic equivalents in English: essential, central, domain, primary, focal, pivotal, common, usual – which are mostly used to avoid repetition in speech and not as technical terms;
- nominative-derivative m. – comes into being when the word is 'stretched out' semantically as a result of semantic derivation to cover new facts and phenomena of extralinguistic reality – See secondary m.; derivative m.; Variation, semantic v.; Semantic development; Semantic derivation; Lexico-semantic variant;
- occasional m. – see contextual meaning;
- original m. – same as etymological m.
- part-of-speech m. – see categorial m..
- phraseological m. (phraseologically bound meaning) – also idiomatic m. (q.v.)the meaning which is realised only in some phrases and belongs only to a given collocation – when a word is habitually associated together with another word to form a 'natural-sounding' combination: e.g. to raise becomes part of the phrase meaning 'to show surprise' in to raise one's eyebrows (at smb.)
- pragmatic m. – semantic component of lexical m. (as distinct from conceptual m.) which reflects the attitudes, emotions of the speakers (either personal or communal), so it can be regarded a correlative term to connotation (q.v.);
- primary m. – see nominative m., direct m.; m. which to the greatest degree is dependent upon or conditioned by its paradigmatic links, while such meanings as display a greater degree of syntagmatic ties are secondary;
- prototypical m.(or core m.) – opp. to peripheral m.;
- referential m. – see Reference;
- secondary m. – see nominative-derivative m.;
- significative m. – see Signification;
- situational m. – see contextual m.;
- specific m. – opp. to generic m. (q.v.), m. of a specific term, correlates with the specific concept, a subordinate one in the hierarchical taxonomy;
- static m. – opp. to dynamic m. (q.v.)
- usual m. – m., accepted by the language-speaking community, fixed in dictionaries, reproduced in speech actualizations of the word;
- virtual m. - as opp. to actual m., systemic (fixed in dictionaries) m.
Means of word-formation – specific language devices with the help of which new words appear in a language. Basic means of word formation in English are derivation and composition (q.v.).
Meronyms – words which semantics reflects the concept of a part; opp. to holonyms (q.v.).E.g. chapter, faculty, atom. – See Systemic relationships in lexis
Metalanguage – a language of the second order, a specific semiological system which is used to speak about language, i.e. a language the subject of which is the content and the expression of a human language.
Metalinguistic – pertaining to metalanguage (q.v.).
Metaphor – semantic transference (q.v.), figure of speech that implies comparison between two unlike entities, as distinguished from simile, an explicit comparison signalled by the words "like" or "as." The distinction is not simple. The metaphor makes a qualitative leap from a reasonable, perhaps prosaic comparison, to an identification or fusion of two objects, to make one new entity partaking of the characteristics of both. Many critics regard the making of ms. as a system of thought antedating or bypassing logic, a figure of speech in which two things are explicitly identified, although they are really only being compared. The remark, "This man is a pig" is understood, of course, to mean that the man resembles a pig. In analyzing ms. we use the terms tenor to denote the primary subject ("this man") and vehicle to designate the image introduced for comparison ("pig"). Some metaphors consist only of the vehicle while the tenor is left implicit, as if one were to say of the man, " That pig ". Such ms. are variously described as implicit, submerged, truncated. – See Semantic changes; Figurative language. Typology of ms.:
- cognitive/conceptual metaphor (q.v.);
- dead m.;
- moribund m.;
- new n.;
- original m.;
- poetic m.;
- stock m.;
- sustained m.
Metaphorization – 1) the process and principle of cognizing new entities through already acquired empirical experience; 2) semantic process of transference of names on the basis of 1). – See Cognitive metaphor; Metaphor
Methods of linguistic research in lexicology:
- combinatorial analysis – analysis of semantic/syntactic combinability of words;
- componential analysis (q.v.);
- contextual analysis (q.v.);
- contensive analysis – analysis of meaning (q.v.);
- derivational analysis – analysis of derivational evolution of a word;
- distributional analysis – analysis of morphemic distribution (q.v.);
- etymological analysis – analysis of the word origin;
- lexicographic analysis – analysis of a word as a dictionary unit;
- morphemic analysis – analysis of the morphemic structure of the word;
- onomasiological analysis (q.v.);
- semasiological analysis (q.v.);
- transformational analysis (q.v.).
Metonymy – type of semantic shift (q.v.), figure of speech the essence of which is the substitution of the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant (e.g. crown for king, the turf for horse racing). – See Cognitive metonymy; Figurative language
Minor means of word-formation – non-productive means of word formation in present-day English: sound interchange, reduplication, back-formation, blending, distinctive stress (q.v.),etc.
Monosemy – linguistic phenomenon of monosemanticity, when a word possesses only one meaning; characteristic of primarily a term (q.v.) or a borrowing (mostly of a barbarism) (q.v.), otherwise a rare occasion in lexicon.
Morpheme – the smallest (ultimate) recurrent unit of the system of expression directly related to a corresponding unit of the system of content; a bound form (q.v.).
Morphemic analysis – the analysis of a word from the point of view of its morphemic structure. – See Affix; Morpheme
Morphologicaldivisibility – See Divisibility, morphological; Analysability
Morphological segmentation – See Divisibility, morphological; Analysability
Morphotactics – study of processes taking place at morpheme junctures. – See Allo-emic theory; Allomorph; Variation, 'emic' v.
Motivation – predetermination of the meaning of a semantic, morphological, phraseological derivative by the meaning of the original stem (in morphological derivation) or original elements (in composition or phraseological derivation).
N
Name – any linguistic sign. – See Nomination 2)
Narrowing of meaning – See Specialization; Semantic changes; Semantic shift
Native words – words of the English word-stock which belong to the following etymological layers of the English vocabulary:
- words of common Indo-European origin;
- words of Common Germanic word-stock;
- purely Anglo-Saxon words.
Neologism – a word or a word combination that appears or is specially coined to name a new object or express a new concept.
Neology – a branch of lexicology studying newly-coined words. See Word, occasional, potential; Acceptability; Word-formation; Nonce-word
Neutralization, semantic (de-semantization) – loss by a lexical unit of its semantics, acquisition of grammatical features, a stage in the direction of grammaticalization (q.v.).
Nomen – a commercial name of a product (e.g. capuccino, xerox), always construed with certain advertising purposes, the properties of a n. (its connotations mostly and associative meaning) should help promote the product on the market. Often metonimically transferred to name the object itself.
Nominative-derivative meaning – See Meaning, nominative-derivative m.
Nomination – 1) the process of denoting ('naming') things, the linguistic part of which consists in the act of connecting a certain denotatum/designatum with a sign/designator. Typology of ns.:
a) according to the number of acts of n. a certain sign takes part in:
- primary n.;
- secondary nomination (q.v);
b) according to various linguistic means employed in n.:
- lexical n. – n. of a concept by means of lexical items as opposed to concepts expressed grammatically;
- propositive n. – expression of concepts of propositional nature by means of propositions.
2) a name; a linguistic unit denoting an extralinguistic entity. Typology of names:
According to the nature of extralinguistic entity denoted names/nominations can by subdivided into:
- names of classes vs. names of individual objects;
- names of objects vs. names of properties (qualities, features)
Nominative meaning – See Meaning, nominative m.
Non-contrastive distribution – See Distribution
Ïîèñê ïî ñàéòó: