General understanding. Read the text attentively and answer the questions:

Read the text attentively and answer the questions:

1. What is wood?

2. What is timber?

3. What does lumber signify?

4. How did man choose among a great variety of woods?

5. What did man learn from experience?

6. Where were timbers exported?

7. How are woods classed traditionally?

8. What is the difference between "softwoods" and "hardwoods"?

9. What is the difference in properties of these two classes?

10. What can affect the timber that can be obtained from trees?

Vocabulary

Exercise 1. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents in B.

Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents in the text to the following Russian.

разнообразие; тяжелый; выбирать; текстура; широколистные деревья; хвойные; мягкий; сосна; ель; резать; вбивать гвозди; дуб; бук; высота; диаметр (окружность) дерева; слой; кора; спелый (зрелый); валить (дерево); бревно.

Exercise 3. Choose the words from the text which have the similar meaning.

texture; to withstand; to shape; to transport; rich; fir; to produce; increment; ripe; give; produce; to cut; diameter; board.

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

1. Freshly cut wood contains a lot of excess water and therefore is very __________.

2. When wood is used as __________, 90 per cent of its value is lost.

3. The __________ protects the tree from harmful fungi and insects.

4. Wood is easily ___________ with tools and machines.

5. The conditions of the growth of the tree ___________ the properties and structure of wood.

6. Wood has a wide variety of ___________ pattern, colour and density.

7. Raw materials from which ___________ is produced are logs.

8. The enlargement of the trunk in ___________ is brought about by the activity of the cambium.

9. One hectare of ____________ forest annually sucks in 30 tons of dust.

10. Most of the British forests lie in the uplands where virtually all of them are _________.

Grammar

Exercise 1. Translate into Russian. Pay attention to the modal verbs and their equivalents.

1. Wood is able to absorb moisture from the atmosphere. 2. Forestry in Europe has to demonstrate sustainability by providing wildlife habitat. 3. We must take care of our forests because our timber resources are not inexhaustible.

4. Scientists can establish facts of air pollution with great accuracy. 5. Durability of timber depends on the conditions under which the timber is to be used. 6. The site for air drying of timber should be level, well-drained ground. 7. Timber is to be stacked with stickers as soon after sawing as possible. 8. Absence of smell is important for any wood that is to be used for packing food-stuffs. 9. Wood may be attacked by insects and fungi.

Exercise 2. Put the sentences with modal verbs into:

a) Past and Future Tense

b) negative and interrogative form

1. They must replace the old equipment at the sawmill.

2. We can use wood for a large variety of products.

3. Scientists have to study the properties of different species.

4. Pine may be used for doors, kitchen tables, banks and stools as its knottiness is an allowable defect.

Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with modal verbs and their equivalents from the box.

1. Ancient people __________ use wood for fires, shelter and weapons. 2. Under these conditions you __________ to grow a sound tree. 3. One __________ follow the rules when drying wood. 4. You __________ to change the conditions of the growth of trees. 5. It ________ be noted that timber grows in importance. 6. __________ the scientists ___________ to study the properties of timber? 7. We __________ use wood in damp conditions. 8. Looking at the cross section of any tree you __________ determine its age. 9. We __________ know that the conduction of heat through wood is a matter of great importance. 10. Pine __________ be used for doors, kitchen tables, banks and stools as its knottiness is an allowable defect.

Exercise 4. Define the functions of Participle I in the given sentences and translate them into Russian.

1. Growing trees contain a great deal of water. 2. The removal of moisture from wood when drying involves considerable difficulties. 3. In air-seasoning the rate of evaporation depends largely on the prevailing weather conditions. 4. There are over 600000 ha of Sitka spruce in the UK, comprising 27 per cent of the total area under coniferous forests. 5. High temperature destroys fungi existing in the wood. 6. There are hundreds of species of tree possessing different properties.

7. Being available in large quantities this fibrous material was used in the manufacture of pulp. 8. Taking into account the effect of their action fungi can be distinguished in two types. 9. Wood-destroying fungi strongly affect the mechanical resistance of timber. 10. When comparing different machines or machine grading

and visual grading the cost efficiency and speed have to be taken into account.

Exercise 5. What is Past Simple and Past Participle of the following verbs? Some are regular and some are irregular.

Exercise 6. Compare the word-combinations with Participle I and Participle II.

Exercise 7. Define the functions of Participle II in the given sentences and translate them into Russian.

1. Density of wood is the dry mass contained in a volume of wood. 2. The density of wood used affects the strength properties of the paper produced. 3. Wood is a versatile building material that can last indefinitely when used wisely. 4. The type of the kiln selected will depend on the output of seasoned timber required. 5. In British Forestry Sitka spruce is the most widely planted species. 6. Observations made indicated that the best quality birch in Ireland occurs in the south-east of the country. 7. Quality is the resultant of physical and chemical characteristics possessed by a tree. 8. If properly used and protected wood can have a long life. 9. Wood is dried to the required moisture content in specially constructed kilns. 10. Timber was used for construction purposes in prehistoric times.

Exercise 8. Choose the right participle.

1. The damage (caused, causing) by insects and fungi can be very great. 2. When (drying, dried) wood loses its moisture. 3. (Piling, piled) lumber one should take into account the air movement through the pile. 4. The (drying, dried) wood is resistant to decay. 5. When (placing, placed) in damp condition wood can swell.

6. The investigations (carried out, carrying out) are of great importance. 7. The boards (piling, piled) with air spaces between the boards dry faster than the boards (placed, placing) edge to edge. 8. Furniture (manufacturing, manufactured) of ash creates a feeling of light and joy in the room. 9. The (treated, treating) wood is sufficiently resistant to the agents of deterioration. 10. The researchers obtained good results while (studying, studied) the properties of wood.

Speaking

Speak about:

1. The difference between timber, wood, lumber.

2. Softwoods and Hardwoods.

3. The choice of timber utilization by man.

Unit 3

Grammar:

Timber

Timber is one of the most important materials used in all branches of industry. Most of the houses in which we live are partly built of timber: they all have wooden floors, wooden doors and wooden window frames.

Artificial textiles are manufactured from cellulose, a substance produced from the woody fiber of plants. Several medicines are obtained from different trees whose medicinal nature is widely known to modern chemists.

Timber was widely used for construction purposes and home needs in prehistoric times. We are told by archeologists that things made of wood were used over 3,500 years ago. Timber was referred to as the best structural material by Greeks and Romans who applied it for construction purposes and whose engineering skill is often spoken about in special literature.

A scientific study of the properties and qualities of wood was started only at the beginning of the 18-th century. The first researches were devoted to the study of the strength of timber. As a result, a considerable amount of data was

collected giving an idea of the properties of different kinds of timber. The researchers paid much attention to studying the conditions of the growth of the tree. The connection between the mechanical properties and the structure of timber was established and proved.

Being available in large quantities this fibrous material was used in the manufacture of pulp more than a century ago. Pulp was used for the production of paper and for making different kinds of artificial fibers. At first spruce was the chief source of pulp manufacture. Nowadays for this purpose pine is used alongside with spruce.

It should be noted that timber grows in importance. Using new methods and technologies branchwood, slabs, off-cuts and sawdust are not rejected nowadays. They are turned into plastics, wood sugar, alcohol, lignin, fuel. Solid residues such as edgings, trimmings, shavings and the like are adaptable as a raw material for further conversion. Various types of fiberboards and particle boards, composite materials and reconstituted wood products are manufactured and widely used. The possibilities of utilization of residues vary broadly from country to country and from region to region, depending on the size, structure, location and diversity.

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