The category of mood

The form would + infinitive is used when the fulfilment of the wish depends on the will of the person denoted by the subject of the subordinate clause. If the fulfilment of the wish depends more on the circumstances, the quasi-subjunctive form may (might) + infinitive is preferable, to show that the realization of the action is very unlikely.

I wish you would treat me better.

I wish I could help you.

I wish he might have helped me.

When rendering wish-clauses into Russian it is possible to use a clause with the opposite meaning, introduced by the impersonal «жаль», «как жаль», «какая жалость» or by the finite form of the verb «сожалеть».

3. In object clauses after verbs expressing fear, apprehension, worry (to fear, to be afraid, to be terrified, to be anxious, to worry, to be fearful, to be troubled, to be in terror, to tremble, to dread, etc.) two forms are used, depending on the conjunction introducing the clause:

a) after the conjunction that or if the clause is joined asyndetically, the quasi-subjunctive may/might + infinitive is used. The choice of either may or might depends on the tense of the verb in the main clause.

b) after the conjunction lest the form should + infinitive is used.

The indicative forms are also possible in clauses of this type if the action is regarded as a real one:

She was afraid that he had changed his mind.

4. In object clauses after verbs and phrases expressing doubt (to doubt, to disbelieve, to have doubts, to greet with scepticism, etc.) and after some other verbs in the negative form the past subjunctive may be used. The subordinate clause is introduced by if or whether.

We had doubts if it were possible to cross the river at this time of the year.

I doubted she had even been there.

5. In object clauses referring to the formal it + objective predicative, expressing opinion of some situation, the choice of the form depends on the general meaning of the principal clause:

We found it strange that he should speak so calmly after the events (the principal clause expresses the

idea of disbelief, hence the form should speak is used).

We regard it as highly probable that he may return soon (the principal clause expresses the idea of

probability, hence the form may return is used).

The subjunctive mood in appositive and predicative clauses

§ 84. The choice of the form in these clauses is determined by the lexical meaning of the words these clauses follow or refer to.

The order that we should come surprised me. (appositive clause)

The order was that we should come. (predicative clause)

His suggestion that we stop and have a look round the castle was rather sudden. (appositive clause)

His suggestion was that we stop and have a look round the castle. (predicative clause)

1. The forms should + infinitive or the present subjunctive are used after nouns expressing wish, advice, desire, proposal, doubt, hesitation, fear, apprehension, etc. After the last two nouns the conjunction lest is used.

Mary’s wish was that we should stay at her place as long as possible. (predicative clause)

Your advice that he wait till next week is reasonable. (appositive clause)

Our fear lest he should give away our secret was great. (appositive clause)

Our fear was lest we should get lost in the forest. (predicative clause)

2. In predicative clauses joined by the link verbs to be, to seem, to look, to feel, to taste, to smell, etc. the past subjunctive or non-factual tense forms are used. In this case the clause has a comparative meaning and is accordingly introduced by the comparative conjunctions as if, as though. If the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action in the principal clause the past subjunctive or non-factual past in­definite is used. If the action is prior to that in the principal clause, the non-factual past perfect is used.

He looked as if he were ill (his being ill is simultaneous with the time when his looks are commented upon).

He looked as if he had been ill (his being ill was prior to the time his looks are commented upon).

The house looked as if it had been deserted for years.

I felt as though I were talking to a child.

It was as if I were being attacked by an invisible enemy.

Note:

There is a tendency in informal style to use the indicative forms instead of the subjunctive ones, especially if one is confident of the exactitude of the comparison.

Ingrid looks as if she has a bath every morning.

You sound as if you’ve got the whole world on your shoulders.

The subjunctive mood in complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition

§ 85. Complex sentences may include conditional clauses expressing real condition and unreal condition. In the first case the indicative mood is used, in the second the subjunctive. Both conditions may refer to the past, present or future.

In sentences with real condition any form of the indicative may be used.

If she heard it, she gave no sign.

Why did he send us matches, If he knew there was no gas?

If I have offended you, I am very sorry.

You may go away if it bothers you.

Now it was serious. If I had laughed about it before, I wasn’t laughing now.

If he was lying, he was a good actor.

Since the majority of conditional clauses are introduced by if they are often called if-clauses. Other conjunctions used to introduce conditional clauses are unless, in case, supposing (that), suppose (that), providing (that), provided (that), on condition (that). Each of them expresses a conditional relation with a certain shade of meaning, and their use is restricted either for semantic or stylistic reasons. Thus unless has a negative meaning, although it is not identical with if not. Clauses introduced by unless indicate the only condition which may prevent the realization of the action in the main clause. Unless can be rendered in Russian by 'если только не'.

He is ruined unless he can get a million to pay off his debts.

The Russian conjunction with negation «если не» cannot be rendered by unless if the negation refers only to the part of the compound predicate. In this case if not should be used.

Оденься теплее, если не хочешь заболеть.

Put on a warm coat, if you don’t want to catch cold.

The conjunction in case has a specific shade of meaning, combining condition and purpose and may be translated into Russian as ‘на тот случай если'.

Take an umbrella in case if rains.

The conjunctions suppose (that) and supposing (that) retain their original meaning of supposition. The conjunctions provided (that) and providing (that) imply that the supposed condition is favourable or desirable.

Suppose you get lost in the city, what will you do?

Providing (that) there is no opposition we will hold the meeting here.

These conjunctions may also introduce clauses of unreal condition.

In complex sentences containing an unreal condition the subjunctive mood is used in both the conditional clause and in the principal clause, because the action expressed in the principal clause depends on the unreal condition and cannot be realized either. The choice of forms depends on the time-reference of the actions.

1. If the unreal actions in both the if-clause and the main clause refer to the present or future the non-factual past indefinite, or past continuous, or the past subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause and should/would + non-perfect common or continuous infinitive in the main clause.

If I were a young man now, you wouldn’t be looking for a porter.

You wouldn’t be talking that way unless you were hurt.

I shouldn’t speak to you unless I were determined.

2. If both actions refer to the past and contradict reality the non-factual past perfect or past perfect continuous is used in the if-clause and should/would + perfect or perfect continuous infinitive in the main clause.

If he had not insisted upon her going there, nothing would ever have happened.

Unless he had been grinning happily at us, I should have sworn he was mortally wounded.

Clauses of unreal condition with the verb in the non-factual past perfect, past perfect continuous, past subjunctive (also should + infinitive and could + infinitive, see below) may be introduced asyndetically. In this case inversion serves as a means of subordination.

Had the world been watching, it would have been startled.

Were you in my place you would behave in the same way.

§ 86. The actions in the main and subordinate clauses may have different time-reference, if the sense of the clauses requires it. Sentences of this kind are said to have split condition. The unreal condition may refer to the past and the consequence - to the present or future.

If we hadn’t been such fools we should all still be together.

How much better I should write now if in my youth I had had the advantage of sensible advice!

I shouldn’t be bothering you like this if they hadn’t told me downtown that he was coming up this way.

Split condition is possible for sentences with real condition as well:

If you saw him yesterday you know all the news.

If you live in this part of the city you knew of the accident yesterday.

The condition may refer to no particular time, and the consequence may refer to the past.

She wouldn’t have told me her story if she disliked me.

John wouldn’t have lost the key unless he were so absent-minded.

§ 87. There are three more types of conditional clauses with reference to the future.

1. In the first type should + infinitive for all the persons is used in the conditional clause and the future indefinite indicative or the imperative mood in the principal clause.

If you should meet him, give him my best regards.

If you should find another way out, will you inform me?

Conditional clauses of this type are sometimes joined to the main clause asyndetically, by means of inversion.

Should he ask for references, tell him to apply to me.

Should anything change, you will return home.

In these sentences the action in the conditional clause is presented as possible, but very unlikely. Such clauses are called clauses of problematic condition. They may be rendered in Russian as «случись так, что...», «если случайно...», «если так случится, что...», «вдруг что-нибудь», etc.

2. In the second type would + infinitive for all the persons in the singular and plural is used in the conditional clause and should/would + infinitive or the indicative mood in the main clause. Would retains its original meaning of willingness or consent (если бы вы согласились, изъявили желание, захотели бы).

If you would only come to our place, we’ll be very glad (we should be very glad).

3. In the third type the past subjunctive of the modal verb to be + (to) infinitive is used in the conditional clause and should/would + infinitive or the imperative mood in the principal clause. Both actions have future or present time-reference.

If you were to undertake it, everything would be different (if by chance you undertook it).

If I were to tell you everything, you would be amazed. - Если бы мне пришлось рассказать вам все, вы

бы удивились.

The form were + to implies greater remoteness and improbability of the action, but does not imply a rejection of it.

Sentences and clauses of implied condition

§ 88. An implied condition is not openly stated in a clause, but is suggested either by an adverbial part of the sentence, or else by the context -from the preceding or following sentence, or coordinated clause.

1. The form should/would + infinitive is used in simple sentences with an adverbial modifier of condition introduced by but for, except for (если бы не...) which imply an unreal condition with an opposite meaning:

But for luck he would be still living alone. - Если бы не удача, он бы все еще жил в одиночестве.

The implication is: if it had not been for luck, he would be still living alone. (In fact he was lucky and he is not living alone.)

These people would long ago have been forgotten, but for the artist’s genius.

That’s all I can remember. I wouldn’t have remembered anything at all but for you.

Except for the sound of his breathing, I wouldn’t have known he was there.

2. As stated above a condition may be implied by the preceding or following sentence or coordinated clause:

- What would you do if you had money?

- Oh, I should do many things!

This was the sort of thing he would have liked to explain to someone, only no one wanted to hear.

(If anyone had wanted to hear, he would have explained this sort of thing to them.)

They had no desire to spread scandal. Otherwise they would have demanded their due.

(Had they had the desire to spread scandal, they would have demanded their due.)

I would have gone too, but I was tied up to Joseph.

(If I had not been tied up to Joseph, I would have gone too.)

On the whole the non-factual use of tenses is rather rare in simple sentences, although they do occasionally occur.

As a child I’d given anything for that - В детстве я бы все отдал за это.

Modal verbs or phrases in conditional clauses

§ 89. The modal verbs can, will, may/might are freely used in the non-factual past indefinite to express unreality in conditional and principal clauses. Like the mood auxiliaries should, would they may be combined with different infinitives:

a)	in main clauses
		If I had time	I could go there I would go there I might go there I should go there
	b)	in subordinate clauses
		If I could translate this article If he might translate this article If I would translate this article (if I consented to do it) If I translated this article	it would be nice.

There may be a modal phrase in both clauses of the sentence, or in one clause only.

If you would be frank with me I might perhaps be of more help.

... and had he so desired he might have been persona grata with the diplomatic set.

If she could have been compressed to about three quarters of her actual width, she would have been very

attractive.

Anselmo grinned in the darkness. An hour ago he could not have imagined that he would ever smile

again.

I would have kept on going, if I hadn’t had to leave Paris.

The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of comparison

§ 90. Several forms of subjunctive are used in clauses of comparison depending on the time-reference.

1. If the action in the comparative clause is simultaneous with that in the main clause, the non-factual past indefinite or past subjunctive is used.

2. If the action in the comparative clause is prior to that in the main clause, the non-factual past perfect is used.

The usual conjunctions introducing comparative clauses are as if and as though.

His eyes wandered as if he were at a loss.

He paid no attention to us, as though we did not exist.

Miss Handforth was holding a tea-pot as if it were a hand grenade.

And so we faced each other after three years of letter-writing as if we had been having a beer every

afternoon for years.

3. If the action in the subordinate clause is presented as following the action in the main clause would + infinitive is used.

He was whistling gaily as if his heart would break for joy.

The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of purpose

§ 91. In clauses of purpose the form used depends on the conjunction introducing the clause.

1. After the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, so the quasi-subjunctive forms may (might) + infinitive or can (could) + infinitive are used. Only might and could are used if the action in the subordinate clause, though following the action in the main clause, refers to the past. But when the action refers to the present or future, both forms of each verb are possible (may or might, can or could).

I tell you this so that you may understand the situation.

She left the lamp on the window-sill, so that he might see it from afar.

She gave him the book that he might have something to read on the journey.

2. After the negative conjunction lest (чтобы не) should + infinitive is generally used.

The girl whispered these words lest somebody should overhear her.

He was afraid to look behind lest he should see something there which ought not to be there.

The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of concession

§ 92. Concessive clauses may either be joined to the main clause asyndetically, or else be introduced by a connective (however, whoever, whatever, whenever), a conjunction (though, although, even if, even though); also by a phrase, such as no matter how, no matter when.

If the action refers to the present or future the quasi-subjunctive form may + infinitive or present subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause. If the action refers to the past may + perfect infinitive or perfect continuous infinitive, or might + infinitive is used. Forms with should + infinitive, would + infinitive, and non-factual tense forms are also possible, though less typical.

He can be right, no matter whether his arguments be convincing or not.

Tired as he may be he will always help me.

Though he might have been suspicious he gave no sign.

No matter how he might try he couldn’t do it.

Much as I would like to help, I didn’t dare to interfere.

When a concessive clause is joined asyndetically, there is usually inversion. The front position is occupied by the part, that states the circumstance despite which the action in the main clause is carried out. Thus it lends a concessive meaning to the clause. In the following sentences the concessive meaning is focused on the part of the predicate:

The focus of the concessive meaning may fall on the nominal or adverbial part of the clause.

Concessive clauses introduced by even if, even though are built up on the same pattern as conditional clauses and the same subjunctive mood forms are used in the subordinate clause.

Even if it were true, he couldn’t say so.

Even though he had proposed, nothing has changed since that day.

Concessive meaning may be rendered by the indicative mood in the same patterns of clauses, if the fact despite which the action is carried out is a real one.

Cold as it is, we shall go out. (it is really cold)

Tired as he was, he continued his work.

Though he was 36, he looked very old.

It was not meant to offend you, no matter how ironic it sounded.

The subjunctive mood in simple sentences

§ 93. Besides cases when the subjunctive mood forms are used in simple sentences to express an unreal action as a consequence of an implied condition (see § 88), these forms are also used in simple sentences of the following kind:

1. In exclamatory sentences beginning with if only to express a wish. They follow the same pattern as conditional clauses, and would + infinitive, past subjunctive, non-factual tense forms are used.

If only it were true!

If only I knew what to do!

If only I had listened to my parents!

If only it would stop raining!

If only we could have stopped him!

2. In exclamatory sentences to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts (surprise and disbelief). Here should + infinitive is used.

And this should happen just on this day!

That it should be you of all people!

3. In questions expressing astonishment or indignation the analytical form should + infinitive is used:

Why should you and I talk about it?

How should I know?

Why should you suspect me?

Why should you not do it?

The traditional use of the subjunctive mood in formulaic expressions

§ 94. These forms remained as survivals of old usage and they are used as wholes, in which no element of structure can be omitted or replaced.

Most of them have a religious origin and express a wish or a prayer: God bless you! (Bless you!) God save the king! Heaven forbid! The Devil take him!

In many cases, however, formulaic expressions may be expanded by variable elements (parts of the sentence or clauses), thus making productive patterns in Modern English. They vary in their meaning, although mostly express a wish. Among them are:

1. Forms used in slogans: Long live the Army! Long live patriotism! Long live the fighters for peace! Long live heroes!;

2. Forms used in oaths, curses, and imprecations: Manners be hanged! Confound your ideas! Confound the politics!

Forms with may + infinitive, unlike modern forms with the same verb, retain the old word order:

May success attend you! May you be happy! May he win!

The subjunctive mood forms with had better, had best, would rather, would sooner are used in sentences denoting wish, admonition, preference, advice. Very often they are used in a contracted form: You’d better go at once. You had best take note of my direction if you wish to make sure of it.

Formulaic expressions with concessive meaning are used in complex sentences as concessive clauses:

The formulaic expression as it were (так сказать) is used as parenthesis, emphasizing that the content of the sentence is highly figurative or non-real:

... there is, as it were, a transparent barrier between myself and strong emotion.

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