Предложение

Слова и словосочетания – непредикативные синтаксические единицы. Предложение – предикативная единица. Предикативность является главной структурной грамматической характеристикой предложения. Предикативность устанавливает отношение между содержанием предложения и действительностью. Предикативность выражается в трех грамматических категориях: лица, времени и модальности. Нужно знать, кем совершилось действие, когда и насколько это действие реально. He comes here every day.

He came here every day.

Предикативность выражается в двух компонентах: глагольном и именном. Для выражения предикативности нужна основа предложения. Лицо – именной компонент предикативности, время и модальность выражается глагольным компонентом. В русском языке часто глагол выражает и категорию лица тоже. В английском языке английский глагол в чрезвычайно редких случаях выражает категорию лица. Поэтому крайне необходим именной компонент предикативности. Это излюбленный тип предложений (Блумфи). Doesn’t’t sound good. Looks nice.

Модальность – понятие сложное, противоречивое. К нему нет общепринятых подходов. В данный момент широко изучается в лингвистике. Концепция Золотовой (российский лингвист). Объективная и субъективная модальность. Объективная модальность – обязательный элемент предложения. Потому что выражается она категорией наклонения. Модальность может быть реальной (изъявительное) и нереальной (сослагательное и повелительное наклонения). Субъективная модальность, как правило, выражается модальными словами (perhaps, probably, surely, of course) и глаголами. Модальность передает отношение говорящего к тому, о чем он говорит. Субъективная модальность является факультативной. Подходов к предложению можно назвать много. Это независимая лингвистическая форма, не включенная в какую-либо большую лингвистическую форму. Сигналами такой включенности может служить подчинительные союзы. но существуют подчиненные конструкции, где нет союзов. Некоторые лингвисты во главу угла ставят пунктуацию. Есть фонетические определения: предложение характеризуется определенным интонационным контуром и разделяется паузами.

Коммуникативный подход к определению предложения. Предложение, абзац, текст, дискурс выполняют коммуникативную функцию.

Предикативность может быть по-разному представлена в предложении: может быть имплицитной и эксплицитной. Эксплицитная – выражена словами (то, что можно выразить). Имплицитная – то, что подразумевается. He comes home. – эксплицитная. Where are you going? – To the cinema. это неполное предложение. Предикативность может быть восстановлена с помощью контекста, значит, мы может говорить о ее наличии. Предикативность здесь имплицитная. Есть единицы, где нельзя восстановить предикативность. –Yes. Такие единицы называются коммуникативами. Они изначально непредикативны.

Предложение – это такая синтаксическая единица, которая обладает независимой эксплицитной предикативностью (Прибыток). Независимой является предикативность, которая не содержит сигналов зависимой. It was raining. Why didn’t you come yesterday? – Because it was raining. – есть сигнал зависимости.

Stylistics is a brunch of linguistics that studies the expressive means of the language. Style is a manner of expressing thoughts in words. Stylistics is connected with lexicology (lexical stylistic devices). Phonetics: alliteration consonance, vaolance. Psycholinguistics – connected with human’s mind. Sociolinguistics (social background of the person). Math, logic, philosophy. Stylistics connected with all the brunches.

1) Statistical stylistics – one of the stylistic brunches. Uses mathematical methods. If we doubt that this author is the author of the book, we can understand.

2) Comparative stylistics (compares styles of different authors)

3) Functional stylistics

4) Prescriptive stylistics - choosing the right word in a different communicative situation (communicative failure – if we do not know how to use words correctly)

All these brunches study the text from the point of view of producer, of the author.

5) There is only one brunch of st-s that studies the text from the point of view of a reader. It is decoding stylistics (стилистика декодирования) – изучается с точки зрения реципиента.

Psychology, sociology, maths, ethics, logics – non-linguistic sciences. But decoding st-s very closely connected with the science which is called information theory. Information chain - how information reaches the reader and what he should do to interpret it in a right way. Клод Шеннон придумал information chain, для радиоприемников. Стилисты переняли этот способ (Jacobson и Michail Refatere). The addresse r is a writer or a speaker. ->>[incoding] -> code ( language) ->> transmitter ( book, speech) ->> receiver (eyes, ears) ->> [decoding] ->> addressee (reader, listener). When any kind of information from the addresser to the addressee there is always a noise. The addressee should know the code to decode information (reading a book: knowing language). Also there can be some terms that addressee doesn’t know. There can be some problems with figurative language (не знает аллюзий). Another language. The knowledge of expressive means – one of the most difficult problems.

[Metaphors and similes (образное сравнение) in movies]

Tropes – stylistic devices on a lexical level. Stylistic devices are considered to be a deviation from the language norm.

Tropes: 2 sight: 1 – changes with quantity (количество) and 2 – with quality (качество). Скребнев suggested this classification of tropes.

Figures of quantity: hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement (намеренное преувеличение). Miosis is a deliberate understatement (преуменьшение - very very small). All these changes will occur on a level of a word. Litotes - использует и синтаксические средства языка, структура, могут добавляться частицы (не). very very tiny – not bad. положительную характеристику излагаем с помощью отрицательной конструкции. чисто формально к тропам не относится. По смыслу – да.

Figures of quality are more difficult to interpret. Metaphor is a covert comparison of two distant objects. Personification is very close to metaphor – it is a mechanism of metaphor. Simile (образное сравнение) is an overt comparison of two distant objects. Epithet (metaphoric). Irony. Metonymy.

Metaphor is a covert of a hidden comparison of two distant objects. Any metaphor has its own structure which represents its mechanism, which consists of 3 parts:

1. tenor is what is compared.

2. vehicle is to what is compared

3. ground is an explanation why this comparison is possible.

Sometimes it is only the vehicle.

Life (tenor) is a gamble with miserable chances (vehicle), if it were a bat (пари) no one would take it.

Metaphors can be trite (or dead) and original. Trite metaphor is a metaphor that has been so often used that it has become a part of our everyday vocabulary and consequently has been included in the dictionaries (as a phraseological unit). Original metaphor is a metaphor which is used for the first time by this exactly author and this exactly communicative situation. But there is a risk of misinterpretation. It is much easier to decode trite metaphor. But it is easier to translate original metaphors, because we can use a word to word translation. Trite metaphors are less valuable.

One more way of classification – metaphors can be according their length

1. Sustained (prolonged)

1.1. Complex metaphor is usually means that there is one tenor, but there will be several vehicles to which this tenor will be compared.

1.2. Compound metaphor (сложно-подчиненные) is a chain of separate metaphors.

2. Simple – one word combination.

J. Leech and M. Short suggested classifying metaphors in the 4 groups that will reflect their quality.

1. Concretive metaphors is a metaphor which attributes concretive to an abstract notion. E.g. the light of knowledge. The pangs remorse – боль раскаяния. There are a lot of trite metaphors.

2. Animistic metaphors when the qualities of a living being are attributed to an animate object. (Daffodils – they tossing their heads)

3. A humanizing metaphors when an object is attributed the qualities of a human being (dancing daffodils).

4. Synaesthetic metaphors – (когда путается чувственное восприятие) warm colour, cold voice. It is trite metaphors.

metaphorlike devices

There is a device that also has the metaphoric mechanism. (like). Simile is a trope which has metaphoric structure, but due to the presence of ‘like’ or as ‘if’ it becomes an overed comparison.

Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you gonna get.

Personification is a metaphoric comparison which accures when the characteristic features of a living being to something which is an animate.

Metonymy unlike metaphor is not a devise which based on a similarity of meanings, but on the contiguity (смежность) of meanings.

(And then my heart with pleasure feels)

Metaphor usually overshadows metonymy. Metonymy also can be classified in 3 main groups. описательный способ.

The first group deals with word combinations in which we use a container instead of what is contained. (give me another plate) It is something that became a part of our everyday speech. It has no stylistic value.

The second group is more stylistically colored. It is a symbol which is used instead of the thing symbolized. (The thrown doesn’t want to do smth) It is typical to newspaper style so it is stylistically coloured.

The last group - when the part is taken for the whole. It is synecdoche. (my heart with pleasure feels).

Irony is a stylistic device which is based on a discrepancy (несоответствие) between what is said and what is meant.

1. Dramatic irony is a discrepancy between what the author thinks and what his character does.

2. the irony of a situation

3. Verbal irony is opposition between what is said and what is meant.

Syntactical stylistic devises

They affect the stylistic structure. Occur on a syntactical level.

1. Inversion. Two types of inversion: grammar inversion (formal inversion) which is not stylistically colored and which we are not interested in. Stylistic inversion is a deliberate violation of the word odder. In this case the element to which we want to attract the attention of the addressee occupies the initial (изначальная) position. (Ten thousand saw I at a glance)

2. Is based on a principal of repetition.

2.1. Phonetic repetition can be of two sorts: alliteration which is a repetition of consonance and assonance which is repetition of vionce.

2.2. Lexical repetition (words, word combinations, sentences). 4 main groups:

1) Anaphora is a case of repetition in which the repeated element appears at the beginning of each clause.

2) Epiphora is a case of repetition in which the repeated element appears at the end of each clause.

3) Anadiplosis (catch repetition – повтор-подхват) at the end of the first clause and at the beginning of the second clause. In our everyday speech it is not stylistically charged. But if it appear in the dialog of two characters from some text it will stylistically coloured. It is used to make the dialog more natural.

4) Frame at the beginning of first clause and at the end of second clause. (I am a good girl.. I am).

2.3. Syntactical repetition, structural repetition – it is parallelism. It is the repetition of structures. In this case we have the repetition of syntactical patterns. (He told him of the… и так повторяется). Usually they accompanied two devices:

polusundetone (многосоюзие) and asundetone (бессоюзие).

Home task ( Мартин Лютер). I have a dream. Найти один абзац и его проанализировать.

This is our hope. This is the faith with which I return to the South (syntactical repetition). With this faith we will be able (anaphora) to hew out of the mountain (высечь из горы) of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords (нестройные звуки разногласия) of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together (бессоюзие, parallelism of structures, epiphora), to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail (идти в тюрьмы) together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.

Foregrounding – выдвижение

There are several means of foregrounding (средства)

1. Convergence (конвергенция) is a phenomenon when different stylistic devices (tropes) or syntactical devices are used together, act together to produce one single stylistic effect. You can use whatever you wish.

2. Coupling (сцепление) is a phenomenon which occurs when we observed repetition of structures, phonetic repetition. (repetition of any kind)

3. Salient feature (выдающаяся черта) is the usage of one and the same stylistic device throughout the whole text which thus becomes its main characteristic feature.

4. The strong position. Elements that are in the strong position are usually the title, the name of the author, the epigraph, the initial paragraph, the clothing paragraph. Can help to predict your expression of the book.

5. The effect of defeated expediency (эффект обманутого ожидания).

план разбора текста

1. elements that are in strong position

2. the structure of the text (where the introduction is, the development of the events, the rising action, the gradation of tension, the culmination (clamence/antyclimence), denouement - развязка. open-plot structure, close-plot structure)

3. the point of view:

3.1. the first person narration

3.2. the third person narration

1) Omniscient narrator – всеведущий и вездесущий рассказчик. The narrator knows everything about everybody and is free to tell the reader whatever he wishes about them.

2) Limited omniscient narrator has the knowledge which is as if limited by the knowledge of one of the characters through whose eyes the situation is seen.

3) objective point of view is meant in place (драма).

4. Forms of writing: narration, description, monologue, inner monologue, dialogue, represented speech (несобственно-прямая речь), the author’s degration (авторское отступление).

5. The stylistic devises both of lexical and syntactical types.

6. General atmosphere

7. The characters (main characters, minor characters). Characterization: direct (портрет – прямое описание) and indirect (мысли, слова героя). The conflict – protagonist and antagonist. Types of conflict: man against environment, man against himself. The main idea of the text (the message).

8. Your impression.

Questions for exam

1. The subject field of stylistic and the differentiation within the field

2. Stylistic devices of lexical level in general

3. Metaphor (the mechanism, in greater detauil, michail short and jefery linch)

4. Syntactical stylistic devices (lexical repetition, parallel structures…inversion)

5. Problems of foregrounding (the main principle)

Выписать примеры на карточку заранее.

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