 |
АвтоАвтоматизацияАрхитектураАстрономияАудитБиологияБухгалтерияВоенное делоГенетикаГеографияГеологияГосударствоДомДругоеЖурналистика и СМИИзобретательствоИностранные языкиИнформатикаИскусствоИсторияКомпьютерыКулинарияКультураЛексикологияЛитератураЛогикаМаркетингМатематикаМашиностроениеМедицинаМенеджментМеталлы и СваркаМеханикаМузыкаНаселениеОбразованиеОхрана безопасности жизниОхрана ТрудаПедагогикаПолитикаПравоПриборостроениеПрограммированиеПроизводствоПромышленностьПсихологияРадиоРегилияСвязьСоциологияСпортСтандартизацияСтроительствоТехнологииТорговляТуризмФизикаФизиологияФилософияФинансыХимияХозяйствоЦеннообразованиеЧерчениеЭкологияЭконометрикаЭкономикаЭлектроникаЮриспунденкция
Un- (unintelligible); uni- (unilateral)
The second group includes changeable prefixes which exhibit their allomorphs or spelling variations in different contexts. Most of these allomorphs are stem-building morphemes that were borrowed along with the words in which they occurred, and they reflect regular phonemic variations in the language of borrowing:
a-lan- 'not, without (ahistoric, anastigmatic);
ab-l&-, abs- 'from, away' '(avert, abstract);
ad-lac-taf-Iag-ial-/ap-las-/at- "to, toward' (administer, accustom, appear, agglutinate);
bi-lbin- 'two' (bicycle, binoculars);
co-lcom-, cor- 'with' (compassion, coequal, correspondence);
dis-ldif- 'reverse' (disarm, difference);
ir-lil-lim- 'non' (illegal, impure, irregular);
mal-lmale- 'bad' (maltreat, malevolent);
sub-lsup- 'under' (subordinate, suppress);
syn-lsym 'with' (sync/ironical, symmetrical).
A special group of prefixes that should be considered carefully is made up of forms that are alike in spelling and/or pronunciation but have different meanings: ante- 'before' (antedate) — anti- 'against' (antifreeze); for- 'away, off (forgo, forsake) -fore- 'ahead, before' (foresee) en- 'to cover or surround with' (encircle, endanger) — in- 'in, toward' (inject,
income) — in- 'not, without' (illegal, immodest); in-lil-lim-lir-lem-/en- 'into' (used in verbs inject, illustrate, import, irrigate,
encourage, embrace) - m/ig-, il-, im-, ir- 'not' (used in adjectives invisible,
ignoble); inter- 'between' (international) — intra- 'inside' (intravenous, intramural) —
intro- 'in, into' (introvert, introduce);
hyper- 'over' (hyperactive) — hypo- 'under, less than' (hypoactive); per- 'through' (persuade) — pre- 'before' (preschool) — pro- 'forward, in place
of (pronoun).
j^Suffixationl
Suffixation — is the formation of words with the help of suffixes [NL suffixum from L suffigere 'to attach underneath' from sub-'wider' +figere 'to fasten'].
O. Jespersen identifies 130 suffixes in English, H, Marschand lists 82 and P.M. Karashchuk notes 64. Again, as in the case of prefixes, different numbers of suffixes emerge when different approaches are used to establish which should be called active and productive suffixes in modern English. For example, the diachronically relevant suffix -le
observed in such words as nettle, knuckle, and angle is not relevant synchronically: it is a dead suffix.
One should not confuse a real derivational suffix with a suffixoid - a word-final sequence resembling a suffix without having its qualities (as ~er in spider, hammer).
There are different classifications of derivational suffixes.
Etymologically, like any other lexical units, English suffixes may be native (-ed, -fast, -fold, -er, -ful, -less, -like) or borrowed (-ablel-ible, -ist, -ism, and -antl-ent). Native suffixes usually appear out of full words. Borrowing suffixes is a good index of the cultural prestige of the language of borrowing.
They may also be classified according to the part-of-speech meaning of the derivatio n a I base to which they are added. Then one may distinguish between denominal suffixes (n+suf): -dom, -ess, -ian, -less, etc., as m kingdom, poetess, Italian, legless, deverbal suffixes (v + suf): -ее, -er, -ing, -able as in employee, teacher, translating, readable, and deadjectival suffixes (adj+suf): -ly, -ish, -ise/ize as in happily, greenish, materialize.
A similar, though different method of classifying suffixes is by the part-of-speech meaning of the n e w word they form. Suffixation is used in forming words of all major parts of speech. There are noun-forming suffixes (-er/-or, -dom, tion/-ation, -hood,
—ism, -ment, -ness, etc.); adjective-forming (-able/-ible; ate/-ite as in favourite), -ful, -ic/ical as in angelic, evangelical; -ish, -ive as in mass-ive; -less, -ly as in friend-ly, -ous as m glorious, -some as in mettlesome; -y as in rainy)', verb-forming (-en, -fy, -ize, -ate), adverb-forming suffixes (-ly, -ward as in coldly, -upward). There are even numeral-forming suffixes (-th, -teen, -ty, -fold).
From the point of view of their ability to cause a functional shift, suffixes in English (as well as prefixes) may be convertive as -ly or -ize, and non-convertive as -dom, -ie, with no rigid boundary between them: the suffix -er, for example, may be both convertive as in worker and non-convertive as in Londoner.
Semantically suffixes are very diverse. They are used in creating names for different groups of concepts. Major lexical-semantic groups that include words with suffixes are:
In the system of nouns:
— agent or instrument: -er, -ant, -ее, -ian, and -1st (worker, assistant, employee, communist; revolver);
— the one who has a quality (with derogation): -ard (drunkard), -ster (youngster, gangster), -ton (simpleton);
— feminine agent: -ess, -ine, -ette (cosmonette, baroness);
— diminution and endearment: -ie, -let, -y, -ling, -ette (booklet, horsy, duckling, kitchenette).
— abstract quality: -ness, -th, -ancy/-ency (darkness, truth, fluency);
— result of an action: -tion (creation), -ing (building);
— relatedness to a proper name: -an, -ese (Indian, Japanese).
In the system of adjectives: <
— permission, ability or favour for a certain action: -able/ible, -ary, -ent, -ive (readable, permissive);
— possession/deprivation of something: -ed, -less (tired, brainless);
— ampleness, abundance of something: -ful (wonderful);
— similarity (-ish, -ic, -like, -some (bluish,Byronic, troublesome).
In the system of verbs:
— to initiate something: -ate (originate);
— to act with a certain (abstract) object: -fy (glorify);
— to act towards a certain quality: -en (shorten), -ize (equalize).
No matter how productive some suffixes may be there are certain constraints on their productivity and ability to form a new word. For example, the borrowed suffix -ant, is added predominantly to a foreign base that is why the word *a buildant with a native derivational base is hardly possible in English. Phonological factors prevent the adjective silly from forming the adverb *sillily. Due to the prior existence of a word, a new suffixational derivative may hardly have a chance to survive: to steal but not *a stealer, as there is the noun a thief in the English language. Due to different constraints there is a lot of memory work alongside a general rale application m deriving a new word by suffixation.
5.2.2. Conversion
Поиск по сайту: