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Geographical Position of Great Britain

The United Kingdom is very small comparing with the biggest countries of the world such as Russia, China or the USA. It occupies only 0.2 per cent of the world's surface and its total area is about 244,000 square kilometres. However there only 15 other countries with more people(there are about 57 million people in the UK now), and London is the world's seventh biggest city. The popu­lation has remained relatively stable over the last decade, but has aged. Britain is a relatively densely populated country. England has the highest population density and Scotland the lowest.

Many foreigners say «English» and «England» when they mean «British» and «Britain». This is very annoying for the 5 million Scotsmen, 2,8 million Welsh and 1,5 million Irishmen who are not certainly English but are all British. The country whose official name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is made up of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland and is situated on the British Isles. This group of islands lies between the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and consists of two large islands, Great Britain and Ireland, and 550 smaller islands around them. It is separated from the continent of Europe by the English Channel, the narrowest part of which is called the Straight of Dover or Pas de Calais. In the west the UK is separated from Ireland by the Irish Sea and the North Channel. The seas around Britain are often rough and difficult to navigate during storms but they are full offish and are extremely important for trade. Britain's main ports are London, Hull, Liverpool, Glasgow and some others.

You will not find high mountains or large plains in Britain. Everything occupies very little place. The highest mountain, Ben Nevis, is in Scotland. In the centre of England is a range of hills called the Pennine Chain which is also known as the ((backbone of England)). The Cambrian mountains in Wales and the Cumbrian mountains in the Lake District in the north of England are not high but amazingly beautiful. The Cheviot Hills mark the boundary between England and Scotland, and physically Scotland is divided into three regions: the Highlands, the Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands.

There are very many rivers in Great Britain but they are not very long. The longest river is the Severn in England, but the most famous is the Thames because it gave rise to the capital of the country - London.

Many people say that Great Britain looks like a large well-kept park. There are beautiful gardens, fields, meadows, lakes and woods there. The best-known wood is Sherwood Forest where Robin Hood once lived, the legendary outlaw who robbed the rich and gave their money to the poor. The most famous lake is Loch Ness in Scotland which is said to have a water monster.

Great Britain is not very rich in mineral resources though there is oil in the North Sea, coal in Wales and in the north of England, tin and other non-ferrous metals in the south.

The biggest cities of Britain are London, Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, Glasgow and some others.

London - the capital of Great Britain

Many tourists who visit London for the first time are advised to start looking around the city either from the top of a Grand Tour double-decker bus or from a tour boat that will take you down the Thames as far as Greenwich and bring you back to Westminster or Charing Cross Pier.

From the upper deck of the tour bus you'll get a good overview of the hustle and bustle of the huge metropolis with its old and new sights living peacefully next to each other. The bus will take you to all the parts of London: the City, the West End, Westminster and the East End.

The City

The City on week-days is the busiest place in London with its numerous banks, offices, insurance companies and different firms. Now you will probably not see the legendary clerk in a dark suit and a bowling hat there. They are in the past. But the City is still the country's business and financial centre and its streets are always full of hurrying people and transport, souvenir street vendors, tourists and policemen. Tourists are attracted by the Bank of England, the Stock and the Royal Exchange, the Old Bailey which is the popular name of the Central Criminal Court of London, the Barbican Cultural centre with the Museum of London and the London home of the Royal Shakespeare company. It is much quieter in the City at the weekend, as nobody lives there, but there are always a lot of people in St. Paul's Cathedral which is the parish church of the British Commonwealth and one of the most beautiful build­ings in the world. Its construction was completed at the beginning of the 18th century and it replaced the older cathedral that was destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666. The Cathedral is the masterpiece of the famous British architect Sir Christopher Wren whose tomb can be seen in the crypt. Besides its significance to the British believers and its beauty, St. Paul's Cathedral has another unique attraction -the Whispering Gallery which runs right round the inside of the lower section of the dome. If someone who is standing near the wall on one side whispers some words, they can be heard near the wall on the opposite side, 32 metres away.

The Tower of London

One of the oldest, best-known and most impressive places of interest in the City is the Tower of London which stands on the north bank of the Thames. It was begun in the 11 th century by William the Conqueror and was added to and altered by later monarchs. In the course of history it has been a fortress, a royal palace, a state prison, a citadel and an arsenal.

Now it is a unique museum in which you can feel the past centuries and touch the walls that witnessed the executions of Henry VIII's two wives and Guy Fawkes, the creation of «History of the World» by Sir Walter Raleigh and the last minutes of the unhappy nephews of Richard III. It is also a living museum in which you can watch the Tower ravens, try on the knight's armory and the king's crown, and take a picture with the Yeomen Warders who still guard the Tower.

Westminster

Why not get on the Tour Bus again and go to Westminster where several most important government buildings are situated, among them the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey and Buckingham Palace?

The Houses of Parliament which stand on the site of the burnt Palace of Westminster, built in the 14th century, is the seat of the British government. It is here that the House of Commons makes the laws and the House of Lords discusses and debates them. It is here that the most important decisions for the country's policy are taken. Besides, it is a wonderful work of art with hundreds of paintings and sculp­tures worth seeing. Its Clock Tower is famous all, over the world as a symbol of London and Britain as it contains a huge clock and a bell, known as Big Ben. The bell tolls every hour and its sound is familiar to millions of people.

Westminster Abbey is another leading landmark of London. Its ancient walls house the church where almost all British monarchs have been crowned, married and buried since the 11 th century. There you can also find the Poets' Corner which is the resting place of some outstanding men of letters like Geoffrey Chaucer, Robert Browning, Alfred Tennyson, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy and Rudyard Kipling. There are also monuments to other famous writers and poets who are buried elsewhere, such as William Shakespeare whose tomb is in his home town of Stratford-on-Avon. You can also see there the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior which commemorates all the soldiers and offic­ers killed in the First World War.

The West End

Buckingham Palace is the official London residence of the sovereign. Though the building itself is not an architectural masterpiece, its interior decoration, paintings and furniture are really worth seeing. The weekly ceremony of the Changing of the Guard attracts many spectators with its music and soldiers' traditional uniforms.

From Buckingham Palace it is a short walk to Trafalgar Square which may be called the main square and the geographical centre of London. It is not as old as some other places of the capital as it was designed in the middle of the 19th century to commemorate the victory of the British fleet headed by Admiral Nelson over Napoleon's fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. Nelson lost his life in that battle but brought victory to his country so British people think of him as their national hero. Nelson's column in the centre of the square is very tall with a statue of the Admiral on the top and four bronze lions, that symbolize the power of the British Empire, around it. Other attractions on the square are the National Gallery with a wonderful collection of arts and the beautiful St. Martin-in-the-Fields Church.

Another 10 minutes' walk can bring you to the heart of the West End - Piccadilly Circus. It is one of the busiest places in London, and if you want to see its focal point - the Statue of Eros closer, don't risk crossing the street; use the underground crossing. Originally the statue was erected as a symbol of charity but now it has become one of the most popular meeting places of young people and punks who make money letting tourists take their pictures.

From Piccadilly Circus you can stroll along the richest streets of London - Regent, Oxford and Bond Streets - lined with expensive shops, restaurants and hotels.

London's numerous parks are an all-year-round attraction both for Londoners and the guests of the city. The parks are called «the lungs» of London and they are true oases in the polluted and overcrowded city. Hyde Park and Green Park, St. James's Park and Kensington Gardens are beautiful in any season and please the eye with their trees, bushes, flowers and ponds.

London museums are so many that it's difficult to name them all. The most important are the British Museum with its unique archeological collections and the Library, the National Portrait Gallery, the Royal Academy of Arts, the Victoria and Albert Museum with fine collections of arts, the Science Museum whose main aim is educate people and Madame Tussaud's Gallery that dis­plays the wax figures of famous people.

The East End

The East End of London used to be the poorest district of the city, but now it is a development area with new houses and a modern industrial centre. It has many interesting sights including an exact copy of Shakespeare's Globe Theatre which was built on its original site and London Dungeon which is very popular with children and adults who like horrors, and many other places of interest.

The Dome

London's newest attraction is the Dome that was built in 1999 to mark the millennium of the new era. It is only 15 minutes from Central London, right next door to the North Greenwich underground station. Inside the Dome tourists will find «Skyscape», a huge big screen cinema hall which can also be used for concerts and shows. They can visit the new world of «Learning» in a magical orchard and see the 21 Century Doomsday Book. They can experience the excitement of «Work» in the future and see how much it has changed from the past. In the section «Body» the visitors can have a journey of emotions through the human body and explore the opportunities and challenges that advances in science, genetics and medicine will bring. «The Shared Ground» will give a chance to observe British interior scenes and experience what could be done if people really joined together. «Living Island» will provide a trip to a typical British sea resort with a beach, band­stand, pier and lighthouse and games with hidden messages. «Home Planet» will take the tourists to the most amazing journey to the most incredible planet in the known universe - Earth - to find out what makes our planet unique. «Self Portrait)) will show thousands of faces of the nation in the picture gallery and photo exhibition. «Faith» will help to get acquainted with the huge range of beliefs and religions which are part of the UK today. «Mind» will give you a chance to play mind games with robots and to explore your senses and perceptions working out how to create a better future. «Rest» will provide the visitors with a mental flotation tank where they can escape the hectic pace of the modern life and enjoy empty space packed with sound, light and shapes. «Моnеу» will give you a virtual chance to blow a million pounds in a wild spending spree and find out what the City really does with the money.

The political system of the United Kingdom

of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

The United Kingdom is a constitutional or parliamentary monarchy. It means that it has a monarch (either a queen or a king) as its Head of State but the monarch has very little power. The Queen (or King) reigns but she (he) doesn't rule. Parliament and the existent government have the power. Parliament and the monarch have different roles and they only meet together on symbolic occasions such as the coronation of a new monarch or the traditional annual opening of the Parlia­ment.

There is no written constitution in Britain. The rules for governing the country have been devel­oped over the centuries. More than a thousand years ago, before the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Anglo-Saxon kings consulted the Great Council (an assembly of the leading men from each district) before taking major decisions. Between 1066 and 1215, the king ruled alone, but in 1215 the nobles forced King John to accept Magna Charta (the Great Charter), which took away some of the king's powers. In 1264 the first parliament of nobles met together. Since then the British Constitution has grown up slowly as a result of countless Acts of Parliament. There have been no violent changes in the constitution since the «bloodless revolution» of 1688 when the Parliament invited William and Mary to become Britain's first constitutional monarchs who could rule only with the support of the Parliament. The Bill of Rights in 1689 was the first step towards constitutional monarchy because it prevented the monarch from making laws or raising the army without Parlia­ments' approval. Since 1689 the power of Parliament has grown steadily while the power of the monarch has weakened.

The present British monarch is Queen Elizabeth (since 1953) and the next in line to the throne is her son, Charles, the Prince of Wales, and then his son, Prince William of Wales.

Britain is a democracy. Men and women over 18 have the right to vote, but it is not compulsory. They have the right to elect a Member of Parliament (M.P.) for their electoral area (constituency). Most M.Ps belong to a different political party. Although there is no limit to the number of politi­cal parties, and at present there are more than 100 of them, Britain in reality has a two-party system of government, since most people vote either Labour or Conservative.

The party that wins the most seats in a general election forms the government and its leader becomes the Prime Minister, the head of the government. At present the Prime Minister of Britain is Tony Blair, the leader of the Labour Party. He or she (the only woman Prime Minister in the history of Britain was Margaret Thatcher, the leader of the Conservative party from 1979 to 1990) usually takes policy decisions with the agreement of the Cabinet of Ministers. The power of the Cabinet, in its turn, is controlled by the Parliament, for no bill can become law until it is passed by an Act of Parliament.

All important bills are presented to the House of Commons (the lower chamber of the Parlia­ment, all 659 members of which are elected by people), where they are explained and debated. If they receive a majority vote they go to the House of Lords (the upper chamber consisting of 92 hereditary or life-time peers, clergy, and supreme judges) and after that to the monarch to be signed. Although a bill must be supported by all three bodies, the House of Lords has only limited powers, and the monarch has not refused to sign any bill for about 200 years. The monarch always acts on the advice of the Prime Minister. So the House of Commons is the main law-making body while the Cabinet of Ministers and the government are the main executive bodies.

Scotland and Wales have their own governments: the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh and the Welsh Assembly in Cardiff. Both opened in 1999.

In Northern Ireland the situation is more complicated. Because of the need to deal with politi­cally inspired violence and terrorism, the Government assumed direct rule over Northern Ireland in 1972. Since then several, plans have been put forward by the successive governments in an effort to establish an administration acceptable both to Protestant and Roman Catholic Communities. Due to the old-time religious enmity, only since 1968 over 3,000 people have lost their lives as a result of the terrorists' attempts to achieve their aims through violence.

There are 14 British overseas territories in which Britain is responsible for their defense, inter­nal security and foreign relations. British policy is to give independence to those overseas territo­ries that want it, and not to force it on those which do not. The territories include British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar and some others. According to this policy Britain returned Hong Kong to China in 1997.

Great Britain is a member of the Commonwealth which is a voluntary association of independent states that originated as a result of dismantling of the British Empire after 1945. The British monarch is the Head of the Commonwealth and also the Head of State of 16 member countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the Bahamas and some others.

The national symbols of Great Britain

The Union Jack

The flag of Britain, commonly known as the Union Jack (which derives from the use of the Union Flag on the jack-staff of naval vessels), represents the emblems of three countries under one Sovereign. The emblems that appear on the Union Flag are the crosses of three patron saints:

- the red cross of St. George, for England, on a white ground;

- the white diagonal cross of St. Andrew, for Scotland, on a blue ground;

- the red diagonal cross of St. Patrick, for Ireland, on a white ground.

The final version of the Union Flag appeared in 1801, following the union of Great Britain with Ireland, with the inclusion of the cross of St. Patrick. The cross remains on the flag although now only Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom.

Wales is not represented in the Union Flag because when the first version of the flag appeared, Wales was already united with England. The national flag of Wales, a red dragon on a field of white and green, dates from the 15th century and is widely used throughout the Principality.

The Royal Crest

The Royal Crest - a lion bearing the Royal crown - is used to denote articles of personal property belonging to the Queen, or goods bearing the Royal Warrant. The lion, «the king of beasts» has been used as a symbol of national strength and of the British monarchy for many centuries.

The British National anthem

The British National anthem originated in a patriotic song first performed in 1745. There is no authorized version - the words used are a matter of tradition. On official occasions it is usual to sing the first verse only, the words of which are as follows:

«God save our gracious Queen! Long live our noble Queen! God save the Queen! Send her victorious, Happy and glorious, Long to reign us, God save the Queen!»

Glasgow

Glasgow is the largest city of Scotland with almost 1 million inhabitants. It lies only 50 miles from Edinburgh, near the west coast of Scotland, but most people would agree that the two cities could not be more different!

For many centuries Glasgow was little more than a cluster of cottages built on the river Clyde. In fact, the name itself means «dear, green рlасе» in the Gaelic language and this is as true today as it was in the 6th century. In the middle of the 15th century the second university in Scotland was built in Glasgow, and the city became important as one of the educational centers. The discovery of America led to the start of the modern city with increasing import of tobacco, sugar and cotton and, consequently, a growing shipbuilding industry. Slowly Glasgow transformed itself into one of the richest and most successful cities in all of Britain.

However, in the 20th century, things started to go wrong for the city. The depression of the 1930s hit the city's heavy industry particularly badly, and thousands of people lost their jobs. From its poverty the city soon developed a taste for left-wing politics - a taste which remains to this day as there is not a single Conservative MP in the whole city!

Glasgow and its neighboring industrial towns are situated upon the Lancashire coal-field, while the city itself lies on the raised bank of the River Clyde. It dominates the whole region and every day many-, thousands of workers commute to the city. It is the centre of a great variety of manufacturing industries. Glasgow became a great port and manufacturing centre at the beginning of the 18th century. Today its leading industries are shipbuilding, iron and steel, machinery and chemicals, textile and clothing, marine and aero engines, road vehicles and machine tools, cotton and woolen carpets production. It is also known for its book-producing and publishing firms.

Today Glasgow is important as a cultural centre. In 1990 it became European City of Culture, ahead of cities such as Athens, Florence, Paris, Amsterdam and Berlin. Glasgow is full of interesting museums and art galleries: The People's Palace telling the historical and social story of Glasgow; the Museum of Comparative Religion, exploring the world's different faiths through art; Glasgow Cathedral, a wonderful example of Gothic architecture, etc.

However, Glasgow is perhaps most famous for the liveliness of its people. The Irish and High­land immigrants of previous centuries have added some of their own charm and wit to the «Glasgow melting pot», making it the friendliest city in Scotland. In addition the shopping facilities are par­ticularly good with many small specialty shops dotted around the main street.

Edinburgh

Edinburgh is a jewel in Scotland's crown. This jewel has many facets: classical architecture piled on hills and tree-filled valleys, medieval closes and sudden views of the sea from street corners. And the castle which looks so right that it might have grown out of the rock by some natural process. Edinburgh has several thousand buildings that are officially protected because of their architectural or historic importance - more than any other city outside London.

Edinburgh is one of the longest continuously inhabited places in Northern Europe; there is archeological evidence of human habitation there in the Bronze Age, about 1,000 BC. It's a public reminder to Scots of their roots.

The Royal Mile leads from the Castle to Hollywood Palace which is another official residence of the Queen besides Buckingham Palace. The Palace is a museum itself, and it contains a number of museums. Among them are the Museum of Childhood with its unique collection of toys and games; the Writers' Museum, a treasure house of items relating to Robert Burns, Sir Walter Scott and Robert Louis Stevenson, and the People's Story Museum which tells the story of ordinary people of Edinburgh from the 18th century to the present day. If you ever go to Edinburgh, don't miss other important sights: the Royal Museum of Scotland, St. Giles's Cathedral, the National Gallery of Scotland and the Scottish National Portrait Gallery.

The city of Edinburgh has always been a great educational centre; it has three universities now. It boasts of such world famous scientists as the mathematician John Napier who invented logarithms and the decimal point, Adam Smith, the father of political economy, David Hume, a well-known philosopher and historian, Alexander Bell, the inventor of the telephone and James Clerk Maxwell, one of the greatest physicists in the world.

Much of Edinburgh's charm is in the way in which past and present live easily side by side. But if you look only at the sights, you may overlook the fact that Edinburgh is also a busy modern city where more than 440,000 people live and work. About one fifth of the working populations are employed in manufacturing industry: electrical and electronics engineering, paper printing and publishing, food and drink industry. Others work in a variety of service industries, especially financing services. Edinburgh's importance as a financial centre is second only to that of London.

The capital of Scotland is now the seat of the Scottish Parliament which has gathered there after a long break of about 300 years.

Cardiff

a) Although Cardiff is an ancient town, it did not expand greatly until the 19th century when it became a centre of export trade in coal. But after the First World War and especially after the Second, when the demand for the Welsh coal both at home and abroad went down, the growth of the city practically stopped.

b) The Museum contains another of Cardiff's surprises: a world-class collection of impressionist paint­ings, one of the finest outside Paris and St.Petersburg.

c) Cardiff is the capital of Wales. It is situated near the mouth of the river Taff, which flows into the English Channel. The site was first occupied by a Roman fort which was built there about A.D.75. By the 3d-4th centuries a massive wall had been built around it, and its traces can still be seen at various parts of the modern city. When Roman forces withdrew from Britain, all the people probably left the fort. Only with the coming of Normans, about 700 years later, did people come to live there again.

d) Recently the Cardiff Bay has been transformed into Millennium Waterfront with a massive freshwater lake. The National Assembly for Wales is situated there as well as the Millennium Cen­tre, a theatre worthy of a city with European dimensions and ambitions.

e) Nowadays Cardiff comes as a surprise to those who expect to see dirty docklands and provin­cial mediocrity. The first sight which will catch your eye will be the Castle. Although it is situated in the very heart of the city, it is surrounded by parkland and acres of greenery. The Castle with its Roman foundation, medieval core and richly decorated Victorian mansion is the best jewel in Cardiff's crown. Other attractions of the city are the splendid neo-classical white-stoned architectural ensemble of the Civic Centre with the City hall, National Museum, Law Courts and University buildings.

f) In Cardiff you can find modern shopping malls and Victorian shopping arcades, cafes, bistros and many places to taste the locally brewed Brains beer.

g) At first sight Cardiff may seem too Victorian, too formal, too dignified. But the second glance will show you that it is a relaxed city with a thriving cultural life. The New Theatre of Cardiff now houses the prestigious Welsh National Opera Company, and all kinds of music and entertainment can be found in St. David's Hall.

Liverpool

Liverpool is another of Britain's largest cities. Its population with the Mersyside connotation is more than one and a quarter million. Its most famous inhabitants are probably John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Liverpool has a wonderful Beatles museum which is visited daily by hundreds of Beatles's fans. Liverpool's fame in the world of football is as wide­spread as its fame in pop-music. Liverpool Football Club was the most successful European Team of the late 70s and early 80s. it won the European Cup three times and was the Champion of Britain many times.

However there is a lot more in Liverpool than just music and football. It developed very quickly in the 18th and 19th centuries as one of Britain's major Atlantic ports. It was a centre for the cotton trade and manufacturing industry, as well as the centre for ships taking part in the infamous slave trade. At one time there were seven miles of continuous docks along the River Mersey. The river itself is crossed by two tunnels: a railway tunnel built in 1886, and a road tunnel, the famous Mersey Tunnel, built in 1934. For many years ferries were the main way across the river which has no bridges at this point. The main industries in Liverpool are shipbuilding, engineering, food process­ing and sugar refining.

Two main sights of Liverpool are its two 20th century cathedrals. One of them belongs to the Church of England and has startling modernistic paintings decorating its interior. The other which belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, is unique in its architecture, which makes it look like a huge Indian wigwam. Liverpool is an important cultural and educational centre with two universities, many famous schools and numerous wonderful museums and picture galleries.

Though Liverpool is situated in England, to the anger of both Irish and Welsh, it is often called the real capital of Ireland and the real capital of Wales because of the large number of Liverpuddlians of Irish and Welsh descent. Today the city is well-known for the wits and humour of its people. The stereotype of a person from Liverpool is someone who is working class, has socialist political be­liefs, and is good at telling jokes and making people laugh. Informally Liverpuddliand are called Scousers. The Liverpool accent is very easy to recognize and it is often called a Scouse accent.

Recently the Merseyside docklands were converted into a leisure area of parks and museums which attract thousands of tourists to the city.

Belfast

Belfast, the capital of Northern Ireland, stands at the head of the wide Belfast Lough, the inlet of the North Channel on the eastern coast of the island, where the river Lagan reaches the shore. The favourable geographical location of the city was the main factor for its development. More than two thirds of the population of Northern Ireland are concentrated in Belfast because it pro­vides employment at its port, docks, factories and plants. Belfast is famous for its ship-building and aircraft building industries. Its ship-yards produce passenger liners and aircraft carriers of the largest size. The city also has the largest rope-works in the world, and food processing, tobacco and other consumer goods factories. As a port Belfast is of great importance for Northern Ireland because more than three quarters of the external trade goes through it.

Unfortunately the name of this beautiful city is associated with the «Troubles». This name is used for the sectarian division between Roman Catholics and Protestants and terrorism in Northern Ireland which began in 1969. By the end of 1999 the «Troubles» had claimed over 3,000 lives including those of members of the British Army and innocent civillians.

Economy and industry in Great Britain

Britain's economy is based primarily on private enterprise, which accounts for 75% of output and nearly 70% of employment. Just over 2% of the British workforce is engaged in agriculture, a lower proportion that in any other leading industrial country. Services contribute a growing proportion of production - 65%, while manufacturing accounts for 21%. By successfully exploiting oil and natural gas from the North Sea, Britain has become self-sufficient in energy and expects to remain so for some years. Exports, mainly to other EC countries, are equivalent to over half of domestic oil production.

International trade plays a vital role in Britain's economy. Exports of goods and services make up around 25% of national output. From 1981 to 1989 the economy experienced eight years of growth, but in 1990 with the recession in Britain and other major industrialized nations, growth slowed to about 1%. The rate of inflation went down in the early 1980s, went up in 1988, and dropped down again in 1992. The unemployment rate in the country is about 10% of the workforce. Growth of manufacturing productivity in Britain is generally faster than in all other leading industrialized countries.

The Government economic strategy is centered on keeping the rate of inflation down, within a range of 1 to 4%. As part of this strategy, public spending and borrowing is tightly controlled. At the same time government policy tries to improve the working of markets and promote enterprise and efficiency. A substantial amount of activity has been transferred from the public to the private sector through privatization and contracting out. Since 1979,46 major businesses have been priva­tized, including British Gas, British Telecom and British Steel.

The Government tries to take measures to reduce personal and corporate income tax rates. Industrial relations have been put on a more secure legal footing, and training opportunities have been expanded. Small businesses employ more than a third of private sector workforce and are responsible for one-sixth of total turnover. The Government provides assistance and guidance to help with problems affecting small companies. Britain is considered an attractive location for inward investment because of its membership of the EC. Though markets in Britain operate as freely as possible, Government regulates monopolies, merges and anti-competitive practices.

Industrial sector

In some sectors of the economy, a small number of large companies are responsible for a sizable percentage of total production, especially in vehicle, aerospace and transport equipment industries.

There are approximately 250 British industrial companies, each has an annual turnover of more than 500 mln pounds. British Petroleum (BP) is the 11th largest industrial grouping in the world, and the second largest in Europe. Five British firms are among the leading 25 European Community companies. The largest manufacturing concerns are BAT Industries (tobacco, food products, etc.), Imperial Chemical Industries, Grand Metropolitan (food, drink, etc.), British Aerospace, Unilever (chemicals), Ford, General Electric Company, British Steel, and some others.

Britain is the world's ninth largest oil producer and the fifth largest gas producer. Developing North Sea oil and gas has created a huge support industry offering equipment and services to oil and gas companies at home and abroad. The two leading UK oil companies are BP and Shell.

Producing 80% of Britain's crude steel, British Steel is the fourth biggest steel company in the Western world. Just under half of the total output is exported. The major areas of steel production and processing are in Wales, northern and eastern England, and the British Midlands.

Britain's chemical industry is the third largest in Western Europe, and it exports nearly 50% of pro­duction, making it Britain's single largest export earner. The most rapid growth in recent years has been in pharmaceutical, pesticides and cosmetics.

Britain also has highly developed mechanical engineering and metal goods industries, electrical, electronic and instrument engineering industries, shipbuilding and marine engineering industries, tex­tile, clothing and footwear industries, manufacturing, construction, service and tourism industries.

British agriculture is famous for its efficiency and productivity. It employs about 2.1 % of the workforce, and Britain is self-sufficient in 58% of all types of food and animal feed. Britain is a major exporter of agricultural produce, machinery and agrochemicals. Today Britain imports about 42% of its food. Two-thirds of agricultural land is owner-occupied. The fishing industry provides 59% of British fish supplies and employs nearly 17,000 full-time fishermen.

Important historical events in Great Britain

The Norman Invasion and Conquest

When King Edward the Confessor (he was called so because he was a very religious man) died in 1065, it was not clear who should succeed him to the throne because he had no son. Some wanted to choose his nearest male blood-relation, others said that the best man in the royal family should be chosen even if he was not the closest blood-relation. This dispute over the Edward's succession led to the Norman invasion of Britain.

For military reasons Harold, Earl of Wessex, was chosen to be the next King, but the other claimants to the throne did not want to lose the crown without a fight. One of the claimants was the important and powerful William Duke of Normandy. He was a distant relative of Edward the Confessor and thought that he had as many rights as Harold.

William was ready to invade England by August 1066, but he was stopped because the wind was in the wrong direction and his ships could not cross the English Channel safely. William sailed on 27 September, as soon as the weather settled. At that time Harold with his army was in the north of the country fighting with another claimant. He defeated the King of Norway, who wanted to unite his kingdom with England, and then had to rush to the south, to face his second rival. The two armies met near the little town of Hastings. They fought all day, but neither side was winning. Then the Normans pretended that they were leaving the battlefield. Some of King Harold's men followed them, and as a result the Anglo-Saxon line was broken. King Harold was killed in the battle, and the Anglo-Saxon army seeing that their leader was defeated, ran away.

William of Normandy was crowned King of England on Christmas day 1066. It was one thing for William to invade Britain and win the battle of Hastings. It was quite another thing for him to conquer the whole of England. Over the next few years William made Norman rule in England strong and safe. He did it with great determination, energy and ruthlessness. There was a strong opposition to William from the Anglo-Saxon lords who did not want to give up their lands to the conqueror. William ordered many of his enemies to be killed, their homes destroyed and burnt to ashes. In his anger he commanded to burn all food supplies of the whole north region and more than 100,000 people died of hunger.

William also ordered many castles to be built all over England from which a small number of Norman soldiers could control a large number of Anglo-Saxon peasants. He also brought many church men who re-organized the Church of England and built new churches, cathedrals and abbeys. England was now closely linked to France in all sorts of ways. French fashions were worn, French words came into the English language (for example, mutton, beef, village, flower, etc.)

The Wars of the Roses

Henry VI, who had become king as a baby, grew up to be simple-minded and book-loving. Some­times his simple-mindedness gave way to periods of mental illness. Henry hated the warlike nobles, and was an unsuitable king for such a violent society. But he was a civilized and gentle man who founded Eton College not far from London and King's College in Cambridge.

England had lost a very costly war with France, and was ruled by a mentally ill king. So nobles, naturally started to look for another royal candidate to rule the country. Their choice fell on the Duke of York and after that the country was divided into «Lancastrians» whose symbol was a red rose and «Yorkists» who had a white rose on their armors.

There were not more than sixty noble families controlling England at this time. Most of them were related to each other through marriage. Some of the nobles were extremely powerful and kept their own private armies after returning from the war in France.

So, when the Duke of York in 1460, claimed the throne for himself the brutal War of the Roses began. The Duke of York was killed in one of the battles but his son Edward took up the struggle and won the throne in 1461. He put the simple-minded king Henry into the Tower of London, and crowned himself as King Edward IV. Nine years later the Lancastrians, who supported king Henry, gathered a strong army, rescued the mentally ill king from prison and chased Edward IV from the country.

But because Edward was wise enough to encourage the profitable trade of the rich English merchants, he was very popular with them and they helped him to raise another strong army. Edward returned to England in 1471 and defeated the Lancastrians. Henry was imprisoned in the Tower again, but this time Edward decided to make sure that the Lancastrians had nobody to support. The official story was that Henry VI had died of grief in the Tower, but very few people believed it. (And in fact, when his skull was examined by scientists in the 20th century, it showed that he probably died from a blow on the head. One of the Tower's myths says that he was murdered while praying in the chapel.)

At last Edward IV was safe on the throne. The War between York and Lancaster would have probably stopped if his brother, Richard of Gloucester, had not been so ambitious and power-thirsty. When Edward IV died in 1483, he left two young sons who were to be his heirs. Their uncle, the hunchback Richard of Gloucester, put them into the Tower where they were murdered a few months later. Nobody knows for sure what happened to the boys but the best known story is they were smothered with their own pillows. Certainly, their uncle Richard had a better reason than most to wish their nephews dead, but his guilt has never been proved.

Richard III was not popular; he was cruel, suspicious and manipulative. Both Yorkists and Lancastrians disliked him. In 1485 another royal candidate claimed the throne. It was Henry Tudor, Duke of Richmond, and he came from France with Breton soldiers. Many nobles, both Yorkists and Lancastrians, joined his army and met Richard III in the battle at Bosworth. Half of Richard's army changed sides and the battle ended with his death and Henry Tudor's immediate coronation on the battlefield.

The twenty-five years' War of Roses had finally ended but it nearly destroyed the English idea of monarchy forever. In that war no prisoners were taken, so the old English nobility had practically destroyed itself. It was this fact which made it possible for the Tudors to build a new nation state.

Religion in Britain

Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom. Britain is predominantly Christian - one British citizen in 10 is a member of the Roman Catholic Church and there are 1.7 million members of the Angli­can church (the Church of England)-the ((established church», that is the church legally recognized as the official church of the State. It dates from 1534, when Henry VIII broke away from the Church of Rome and declared himself Head of the Church of England. British monarchs still bear this title today. The Queen(or the King) on the advice of the Prime Minister appoints two Archbishops (of Canterbury, who is the Church's leader, and of York) and 42 bishops who sit in the House of Lords. Although the Church receives no money from the state, it is a great property owner and also has a large number of stocks and shares. Priests in the Church of England have the right to be married, and in 1987 women were allowed to become priests. Very often vicars who are responsible for separate parishes take a great interest in their parishioners and combine the tasks of priest, social worker and psychologist.

In Scotland, there are 1.1 million members of the Presbyterian Church - the established church in Scotland. It is completely separate from the Anglican Church, has its own organization and appoints its own ministers. Presbyterianism is a severe form of Protestantism, founded in the 16th century by the fol­lowers of the great French reformer Calvin. In Northern Ireland, about half the people regard themselves as Protestants and nearly 40% as Roman Catholics.

In Wales the Anglican church was disestablished in 1920. It means that there is no one officially established church, but Methodist and Baptist are the two most widespread Christian Churches.

The leader of the Catholic church in Britain is the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster. Normally only unmarried men are allowed to be Catholic priests but in 1987 for the first time two married men were allowed to train as priests.

The Jewish community in Britain is the second largest group of Jews in Europe. More than half of them live in London. Jews still tend to marry Jews, for both racial and religious reasons, though it is happening less and less among the young generation.

Britain has one of the largest Muslim communities in Western Europe, with about 1-1,5 mln people and 600 mosques and prayer centres. One of the most important and beautiful Muslim institutions in the Western world is the Central Mosque in London which is part of the Islamic Cultural Centre.

The Sikh community in Britain comprises about 4-5 thousand people, with the largest groups of Sikhs concentrated in Greater London, Manchester and Birmingham. The oldest Sikh temple was established in London in 1908.

The Hindu community in Britain accounts for about 320,000 people. Its first temple was opened in London in 1962 and now there are over 150 throughout Britain.

Fewer and fewer British people go regularly to the traditional Protestant and Catholic churches. But there is a great deal of interest in religion. There are many newer and smaller Christian organizations which are growing fast. Every year new cults spring up, which are not based on Christianity or other major religion. Many of these cults offer ways of discovering one's real self. Others are adaptations of ancient religious practices or superstitions, such as moon worship or witchcraft.

Non-denominational religious teaching (that is Christian, but not from any one Church) is compulsory in all state schools in Britain. The day usually starts with a short service held in the school hall. If a student has strong religious objections s/he does not have to attend the service or religious lessons. In Scotland neither the morning prayers nor the religious lessons are compulsory.

Nowadays the old narrow intolerance of the churches is breaking down. Many established churches are moving closer together, bringing nearer the idea of ecumenism, the movement toward universal Christian unity.

Education in Great Britain

Children in Britain must attend school from the age of 5 (4 in Northern Ireland) until they are 16. Before the start of formal schooling, many children attend nursery schools attached to primary schools. In addition some parents elect to send their children to private (fee-paying) nursery schools or kindergartens. In England and Wales, many primary schools also operate an early admission policy where they admit children under 5 into what are called reception classes.

Children first attend infants' schools or departments. At 7 they move to the junior school and the usual age for transfer from junior to secondary school is 11 (12 in Scotland). In some areas, however, «first» schools take pupils aged 5 to 8, 9 or 10, and pupils within the 8 to 14 age range go to middle schools.

The British educational system was changed in the 1960s. Previously, pupils in the state system either went to a grammar school or a secondary modern school at the age of eleven. To enter a grammar school, pupils had to pass a national exam (the Eleven Plus). Those who failed went to a secondary modern school. This two-school system and the Eleven Plus were abolished and replaced by comprehensive schools. These are intended for all pupils, whatever their abilities. They are state schools which is the general term for any school which is run by the government and where the parents do not have to pay. Over 85% of secondary school pupils go to comprehensive schools. However, 145 gram­mar schools in England didn't close down. They are very popular because they offer a good academic education for the 11 to 18-year age group. Children enter grammar schools on the basis of their abilities, first sitting the «11» plus or entrance examination. In grammar schools there is usually a main school and a sixth form (the last one) which is run separately. Grammar schools cater for 4% of children in second­ary education.

A small minority of children attend secondary modern schools (around 4%). These schools provide a more general and technical education for children aged 11-16.

City Technology.Colleges (CTCs) aim to give boys and girls a broad secondary education with a strong technological and business slant. They are non-fee-paying independent schools, set up by the Government with the help of business sponsors who finance a large proportion of the initial capital costs and develop links with the schools. There are now 15 such colleges in operation in England and Wales.

Specialist schools, which only operate in England, give pupils a broad secondary education with a strong emphasis on technology, languages, art and sports. There are over 250 specialist schools. They charge no fees and any secondary school can apply for specialist school status.

The independent school sector is separate from the state educational system, and caters for 7% of all schoolchildren in England and 4% in Scotland. About 250 of the larger independent schools are known for historical reasons as public schools. They are very expensive private schools and in some cases fees can amount to several thousand pounds a year. Some students gain scholarships and their expenses are covered by the schools. These schools usually have good academic standards and are attended by pupils from an upper class or wealthy background. Famous ones include Eton and Harrow. Eton, which was founded in 1440, is said to have been the first «public school» because students could come to it from any part of England and not, as was generally the case, just from the immediate neighborhood. Most public schools are boarding schools where the pupils live as well as study.

In Northern Ireland there are a few fee-paying schools, and in Scotland «public schools» are supported by public funds and are not fee-paying and independent.

Holidays in Great Britain

National Days in Britain are not celebrated to the same extent as in France or America. Scotland's National Day is St. Andrew's Day (30 November), which has now largely been overshadowed by Burns' Night. St. David's Day (1 March) is the National Day of Wales. England National Day is St. George's Day (23 April) which coincides with William Shakespeare's birthday. St. Patrick's Day is an official Bank Holiday in Northern Ireland.

For many British people (with the exception of Scotsmen), Christmas is the favourite holiday. It is celebrated much earlier than in our country, on December, 25. Preparation for the holiday begins several weeks before it with sending dozens of cards, buying presents and food, decorating the Christmas tree and the house. On Christmas Eve everything and everybody are in a rush. Most offices and public buildings close at one o'clock, but shops stay open late. Railway and bus stations are overcrowded as people travel from all parts of the country to be with their families. Christmas is the most important family holiday.

The cities and towns are decorated with thousands of coloured lights, and the biggest Christmas tree in Britain is put up in Trafalgar Square in London. This tree is a traditional gift of the Norwegian people to the British. It is brightly decorated with shining balls and brilliant stars that sparkle in the light. Imitation snow lies soft and silvery white on the dark green branches. It is so beautiful that hundreds of people with their children come to admire it.

In the homes there is a great air of expectation. Holly and mistletoe are hanging on the wall waiting for the English traditional kissing when a girl standing under these evergreen plants can't refuse being kissed. Mothers of the family are busy in the kitchen getting ready for the next day's dinner of turkey, pudding and other tasty things. Before going to bed children may hang Christmas stockings on their beds in the hope of getting presents from Father Christmas or Santa Claus. Nowadays most children get so many presents that stockings are too small for them and gifts are put under the Christmas tree. The next day, on December 26 people get up late, have big meals, go to church and have a good rest after the Christmas rush.

New Year in Britain (with the exception of Scotland) is not celebrated as widely as in our country. Some people may even completely ignore it and go to bed at the usual time without waiting for the clock to strike twelve. Those who do celebrate it may have parties or family get-togethers, go to the disco, or if they live in London, join in the festive mood of the huge crowds of people in Trafalgar Square and Piccadilly Circus.

In Scotland New Year is called Hogmanay and is the most favourite holiday of the year. It begins with a thorough cleaning of the house and cooking plenty of tasty food. On New Year Eve the families that observe old traditions sit themselves round the fire and when the hands of the clock approach twelve, the head of the house opens the front door of the house and holds it open wide till the last stroke of the bell, to let the Old Year out and the New Year in. Then greetings and gifts are exchanged, glasses are filled and everybody is waiting for the First-Footers, young men who will be the first to come in the house to bring luck and prosperity for the coming year.

Though February is a winter month, many British people start feeling spring on February, 14 when they get Valentine cards and symbolic love gifts. For many centuries St. Valentine's Day has been a good opportunity to openly show your feelings and exchange love-tokens.

Pancake Day is the popular name for Shrove Tuesday, the eve of the Lenten fast. In medieval times all Christians made their compulsory confessions or «shifts» from which the words «Shrove Tuesday» derives. They also took their last opportunity to eat up all the rich food prohibited dur­ing Lent. Thus all eggs, butter and fat remaining in the house were made into pancakes. The day was also characterized by merry-making, feasting and eating a lot of pancakes. Nowadays only pancake eating has remained. And though you can eat them on any day of the year, they seem to be much tastier on Pancake Day! Some regions in Britain celebrate the day with pancake races during which a pancake should be tossed in the frying pan at least three times.

Easter in Britain is the time of giving and receiving presents which traditionally take the form of Easter eggs and hot cross buns. Nowadays eggs are usually made of chocolate with surprises in them, but the old custom is dying and painting eggs is still kept in some country districts. Other emblems of Easter are fluffy little chicks, the Easter Bunny and spring flowers.

April Fools' Day is not an official holiday but few people are indifferent to it. Everyone who has a sense of humour likes to play practical jokes on their friends and family neighbors.

Bank Holidays are public holidays called so because the banks as well as most offices and shops are closed. There are winter, spring and summer Bank Holidays.

Another popular holiday in Britain is Guy Fawkes Day, which commemorates the discovery of the so-called Gunpowder Plot, a conspiracy to destroy the English Houses of Parliament and King James I on November, 5 1605. It is usually marked with bonfires and dummies of Guy Fawkes.

British literature

The playwright William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and the novelist Charles Dickens (1812-1870) remain two of the most popular and widely known British writers the world over. In addition to writing 35 known plays, Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets and sometimes acted small parts in his own plays - he is known to have played the Ghost in «Hamlet». His best known plays include «Romeo and Juliet», «King Lear», «Hamlet» and «A Midsummer Night's Dream».

Dickens began his writing career as a ournalist, and all his novels were first published serially in periodicals. Many of his works highlight the injustice of the 19th century social institutions and the inequalities between the rich and the poor. His most famous works include «01iver Twist», «A Christmas Сагоl» and «David Copperfield».

The novels of Jane Austin (1775-1817) are known for their subtlety of observation and irony, together with their penetrating insights into the provincial life of the middle classes in the early part of the 19th century. Her works include «Emma», «Pride and Prejudice» and «Sense and Sensibility» - all successfully dramatized on film and TV.

The Bronte sisters, Charlotte (1816-1855), Emily (1818-1848) and Ann (1820-1849), were three talented 19th century women novelists whose works are regarded as classics today. Charlotte is best known for her novel «Jane Eyre» and Emily for «Wuthering Heights» - both novels featur­ing strong independent heroines.

Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), Scottish poet and novelist, displayed his passion for the history of his country in his works. His narrative poems «The Lay of the Last Minstrel», «Магmіоn», «The Lady of the Lake» were immensely popular. The novel «Waverley» was the first of a long series, published anonymously, including «Ivanhoe» and «The Talisman». Walter Scott's influence can be traced in much of the romantic art of the early 19th century which took ballads and folklore as its theme. Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894), one of the most favourite children's adventure story-teller. His «Treasure Island», «The Kidnapped», «The Black Arrow» have been among the best-read children's books for more than a century. Stevenson grew up as a sickly child and never spent much time outdoors or at sea, but his bright personality, his vivid imagina­tion and his creativity helped him to see the islands he had never been to and convincingly write about the events he had not witnessed.

Lewis Caroll, is the pen-name of Oxford professor of mathematics Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, the author of the famous «Alice's Adventures in Wonderland» and «Through the Looking Glass», which can't stop amazing both children and grown-ups with its serious humour and kind wisdom.

One of the most widely known English poets is Geoffrey Chaucer, who lived in the 14th century. Since then his works have been continuously transcribed, published, read and commented on. His best known work is «The Canterbury Tales», a collection of tales told by a group of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury Cathedral.

Another famous British poet is George Gordon Byron. His journey to the Near East in 1809 inspired several of his poems, especially «Childe Harold's Pilgrimage», whose publication made him immediately popular. In 1823 he joined the Greeks in the fight for liberty against the Turks, and died there of fever at the age of 36. Some of his poems were full of dramatic, romantic and sometimes deeply moving lyricism, others were sentimental, still others full of satire and sarcasm. He led an eccentric life, and stories about his love affairs made him even more popular.

Persy Bysshe Shelley was the most idealistic of all British Romantic poets and he died very young too, having drowned in the sea. His wife Mary Shelly is famous for her novel about Fran­kenstein.

Contemporary British literature

The most prestigious award in the British literature now is the Booker Prize which is given annually to the best novel published in Britain. The novels that can get it must be written in English by a citizen of Britain, the Commonwealth or the Republic of Ireland. The winner of the Booker Prize in 1997 was Arundhati Roy for her novel «The God Of Small Things». Another Booker Prize winner is Bernice Rubens, who got it for her book «The Elected Member». The leading contemporary Scottish writer is Glasgow-born James Kelman whose book «A Disaffection» was shortlisted for the Booker Prize.

The most read British poets are the Welshman Dylan Thomas, whose best-known work is the play «Under Milk Wood», Ted Hughes, who was made Poet Laureate in 1984 and whose duty was to compose odes in celebration of state occasions, and the Northern Ireland poet Seamus Heaney, whose poems give a vivid and beautiful picture of Irish rural life and work.

Sports in Great Britain

The British as a nation do all kinds of things in their free time: they go shopping or jogging, they play darts or football, they collect records or stamps, they go to church or to the pub. Of course, some of their free time activities, like visiting relatives or taking driving lessons, may not be fun, but whatever they do, the way they spend their free time is probably providing other people with work. Leisure is the fastest growing industry in Britain.

According to the latest figures, the most popular activity of all is walking: 35 million British people regularly walk two miles or more a day. More energetically, 10 million people go to «кеер fit» classes or take part in aerobics or yoga, and half as many do some weight training in a gym. About 9 mln people go cycling, 4 mln go jogging, and the same number play football and golf. Other popular sports are bowling, tennis and squash.

Watching other people playing is also a popular leisure activity: the favourite sports among TV viewers are football, horse racing, cricket and tennis. But although millions watch the matches on TV, not so many go regulariy to the stadium to watch football matches.

The fitness boom of the eighties led to a big rise in the numbers of people participating in sports. To cater for this boom over 1,500 private health and fitness clubs and the same number of public leisure centres have been built during the past 20 years. These modern centres with swimming pools, tennis courts and gyms are places for people to go to spend their leisure time - and their money. Families can even spend their holidays at huge indoor water parks, where they can play or relax all day long without worrying about the weather out­side. But this may not be helping them to get fitter: the British may become a nation of splashers but not a nation of swimmers. The big question fitness experts are asking is: «Should sport be taken seriously or should it just be fun?»

The life of youth in Great Britain

Nowadays there are about 7.5 million young people in Britain between the ages of 10 and 19, and it is believed that this figure will grow to nearly 8 mln by 2004. These young people will represent Britain in the 21st century.

Almost every aspect of Government domestic policy, including education, housing, health, social security, law and order, environmental and national heritage, affects the well-being of young people and shapes their future.

Education and training are among the Government's priority responsibilities for young people. Un­derlying Britain's education policy is the principle that every young person should have the opportunity to get a good basic education until the age of at least 16. After 16, young people are encouraged to stay at school or college to achieve more advanced educational qualifications, or they are offered the chance to take part in a broad range of government supported training programmes leading to the achievement of specific vocational skills. In this way they are in some part prepared for adult life.

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