Sentence Structure

8. Traditional parsing presentation based on lexico-grammatical features of sentence parts and their syntactic functions.

9. IC-model of analysis of sentence structure as made up by binary immediate constituents of subordinative connections with included coordinative connections.

10. Constituents of level-structure of sentence: subject noun-phrase (NP–subj), predicate verb-phrase (VP–pred) with further subdivision into ultimate constituents.

11. Definitions accepted like analytical IC diagram with vertical and horizontal lines and IC-derivation tree with branching nodes.

12. Notion of base pattern, kernel sentence and transforms.

13. Syntactic derivation understood as paradigmatic production on the basis of the kernel pattern.

14. Surface structure and deep structure; transformational procedures: morphological arrangement, functional expansion, substitution, deletion, positional arrangement, intonation arrangement.

(see:M.I.Bloch. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar, Chapter 24, 2; Chapter 25, 2-3)

Revision tasks for self-control

Which are the principles of division of sentence structure into its constituent parts?

What is the functional role of principal and secondary parts?

Give explanation on the categorial and syntactical meanings of principal and secondary parts.

Point out the proper types of constituent parts as well as the way of their expression.

TOPIC 6: Composite sentence: types, clauses, connectors

General remarks on a composite sentence. The composite sentence, opposed to the simple one, functions as a polypredicative unit, being formed of two or more predicative lines, reflecting a number of elementary situational events. Each predicative line in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it, so that it corresponds to a separate sentence as a part of contextual sequence. Composite sentences display two principal types of connection: Parataxis (coordination) and Hypotaxis (subordination): by coordination the clauses are arranged equipotently, i.e. as units of syntactically equal ranks, whereas by subordination clauses being of unequal ranks are dominated by one another. Things considered, composite sentences are to be classed into compound sentences (coordinating clauses) and complex sentences (subordinating clauses) specifically displayed by syndetic (conjunctional) and asyndetic (non-conjunctional) types of connection.

6.2.Complex sentence.The complex sentence as a polypredicative unit is built up on the principle of subordination leading to the composition of two clauses: principal and subordinate. The clauses joined on the basis of subordinate syntactic relation are made recognizable due to either subordinate connectors (pure conjunctions): because, as, that, though, so that, than, until, before, after, if, while; conjunctive substitutes: what, whose, who, which, whom, when, where, why) or asyndetic punctuation, sentence order, intonation.

The principal clause definitely dominates the subordinate clause functionally and positionally, displaying correlation both with sentence parts and parts of speech, in other words with a syntactic function and a morphological status. Consequently, the two bases of classification are considered, namely, functional and categorial. In accord with the categorial principle, subordinate clauses are classed by nominative properties of notional words as reflected in part-of-speech classification:

substantive – nominal (nounal), naming an event as a certain fact: e.g. What she wanted was love and respect. That this lovely woman accepted his brutality was a real surprise to me. I wanted to know how the damaged manuscripts had been restored. He was afraid that she might let him down;

qualification nominal (adjectival), naming an event as a certain characteristic of some other substantive entity: e.g. The photo showed the face that was pretty commonplace. I was introduced to Mr. Brown, whom I found clever and sympathetic. I’ll never forget the day when I met Linda;

adverbial, naming an event as a characteristic related to some process or quality: e.g. When she was through, she put the paper aside and relaxed. I was just curious, though it wasn’t any of my business. If it hadn’t been for his driving experience, we could have been crashed.

The categorial features of clauses go together with their functional sentence-part features. Based on the functional analogy between clausal and lexemic parts of the sentence (subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier), the further on classification brings about the following types:

subject clause, founded on out the following types:

nce (subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier), the further on class the two-way domination, introduces a substantive event in the position of a subject: e.g. Whether to do it or not is just the question. It is announced that the proper checks have already been made. That the things were not quite bad seemed to be a good sign. That he will accept the proposed amendments does not seem clear at all;

predicative clause, conforming to the predicative position, performs the function of the nominal part of the predicate adjoined to the link-verb: e.g. Work may be just what I want now. The strange thing is that they are disappointed with the new model. He looked as if he had been running fast. The reason is that he should have been less rude and cruel. She feels as though she were guilty;

object clause denotes an object-situation of the process expressed by the verbal constituent of the principal clause: e.g. It has never come to me that she could have let me down. I just can’t even fancy how far away she might be now. He was totally appalled with what she was telling him. I have been wondering why he was worrying so much;

attributive clauses of the three syntactic functions: descriptive expressing some additive supplementary characteristic of the substantive referent: e.g. We saw a small house behind the fence, the windows of which were wide open. The scientist, whose works are highly appreciated, was awarded the Nobel Prize. We found a nice lawn, where we decided to put up a tent; restrictive performing an identifying role, singling out the referent in the given situation: e.g. People protested in a march against the programme which the government was pursuing. I was seeking the monograph to which the professor had been referring in his yesterday’s lecture. The talk was given by the politician I have never heard of. Will you show me the new books you have bought?; appositive, while giving some qualitative description of the substantive referent, defines or specifies its meaning in the context of a nounal relation, pronominal relation, anticipatory relation: e.g. I was excited about the news that the professor was coming to hold some theoretical sessions. Are you interested in the suggestion that the office should be moved to the new premises? I couldn’t agree with all that she was saying in her favour. I couldn’t see anyone that might have been attracted to her. He rejected it what he found inappropriate. You must assume it that he needs our help;

adverbial clauses exposing temporal and statial localization, clauses of time and place: e.g. After the case had been reported to the police, the investigation was started immediately. He could see the deserted hut, where the old wall was hidden among the bushes; giving a qualification of the event or the process rendered by the principal clause, clauses of manner and comparison: (e.g. There was a moment of silence as if no one was aware of the comer. I am doing it as I was told. You must describe the situation as you understand. He looked a little discouraged as though he had been waiting unexpectedly long; presenting various circumstantial associations, clauses of attendant circumstances: e.g. As the meeting was going on, he was engaged in a lively conversation. While he is good at computers, I feel helpless and weak; condition: e.g. I’ll feel depressed unless I do well at the exam. If he had been workinghard, he would have had more career prospects; cause: e.g. As the data seemed dubious, he had to check them up. The journey was cancelled because it had been pouring with rain; result: e.g. The life looked so sheltered and lonely that he couldn’t settle down in the first days; concession: e.g. No matter how tired you might be, do not stop, go ahead. He was not an easy man, though he had a good reputation; purpose: e.g. Put on the warm coat in case it starts snowing. They are going to search the Internet in order that the report will be prepared on time.

Complex sentences with two or more subordinate clauses discriminate two basic types of subordinatation arrangement: parallel homogeneous and heterogeneous (compare: I won’t insist on anything unless we talk it over and unless he turns up, eventually. She asked her daughter what the matter was and why she was going to turn down the offer. The man I was afraid of wasn’t a real danger, only if he were treated kindly. If you have a look at the document you have just received, you’ll see no sign on it) and consecutive presenting a hierarchy of clausal levels (e.g. He could be a lot more trouble if you know what I mean. It was in the kitchen where the box was hidden as if I would dare to touch it).

6.3.Semi-complex sentence. The semi-composite sentence is based on fusion of explicit (primary) and implicit (secondary) predication making the semi-predicative expansion of the sentence. According to the ranking structure, they are divided into semi-complex and semi-compound. The semi-complex sentence includes a subordinate semi-clause into the dominant part on the principle of position-sharing and linear expansion, falling consequently into the following groups of semi-predication:

subject-sharing built up by means of the two clauses overlapping around the common subject: e.g. She gave him a quick look, startled and bewildered. He stood looking around nervously. Her manner seemed a bit casual, full of light-hearted easiness. The company is said to be expanding on the West;

object-sharing built up by means of the two clauses overlapping round the positions of the subject and the object: e.g. He found a lot of things changed after his arrival. Can you account for the chief making no remark about the problem? He intends to encourage them to study hard. I saw him slowing down his car and turning into a narrow street;

attributive complication derived as fusion of the two

clauses having an identical element attributively described

in the semi-clause: e.g. The neighbour living next

door made us absolutely annoyed. A little girl stood in the

light falling from the passage. The baby left alone in the

room began to scream. Conferences are held in the

business-centre located close to the city centre;

adverbial complication derived as fusion of the two clauses where the semi-clause is embedded in an adverbial position: e.g. Having been on the road since the morning, they were tired and thirsty. While browsing the books, I came across lots of amazing episodes. She looked down on him as if being superior because of his background. Not being sure of her intentions, he would never agree to back her up. Seen from the hills, the castle looks amazingly magnificent;

nominal complication happens when a nominalised semi-clause is embedded in one of the positions of the principal clause: e.g. Being told off is resented by most teenagers. To move outside the home country is becoming easier. We have been wondering where to go and what to do. He had difficulties in controlling the situation properly.

6.4.Compound sentence The compound sentence is a composite sentence, where its clauses are structurally and semantically organized on the principle of coordination, expressed either syndetically (by means of coordinate connectors) or asyndetically (sentence order, punctuation, intonation). It is important to note that the functional property of coordination is determined by the semantic relations between the clauses, namely, copulative (e.g. I offered her a nice job and she did not dare to turn it down. The furniture won’t go with the carpet nor will it go with the walls), disjunctive (e.g. His remarks were witty, or so they seemed to us. Either you didn’t read the document carefully, or you didn’t see the point), adversative (e.g. I am seeking the truth, but I am on the wrong track, I am afraid. You knew it, yet you didn’t say!), consequential (e.g. He tapped his forehead significantly, so we changed the topic at once. I’ve quite forgotten how she looks, therefore I might not recognize her in the crowd), explanatory (e.g. There was nothing offensive in her words, that is she did not mean to hurt you. The pace of changes in technology is enormous, in other words, innovations seem to be speeding up). From the semantico-syntactic point of view, the coordinating connectors or coordinators are divided into conjunctions proper and semi-functional clausal connectors of adverbial character: (1) and, but, or, nor, neither, for, either…or, neither…nor, both…and; (2) then, yet, so, thus, consequently, nevertheless, however, hence, therefore, accordingly, namely, such as, for example.

It is easily seen that the semantic relations between the clauses, making up the compound sentence, depend partly on the lexical meaning of the coordinator uniting them as well as on the meanings of the words constituting these clauses.

6.5.Semi-compound sentence. The semi-compound sentence is structured syndetically or asyndetically of the two clauses, one of them being semi-clause, overlapped round the identical element belonging to one or both of the principal syntactic positions, either the subject or the predicate. Thus the main factor of semi-compounding is close relation of coordinated notional parts of the predicative line of the sentence: e.g. He couldn’t believe it and was a little scared. She didn’t use to be angry or shout. He was a bright boy, healthy and strong. Involved in the expression of semi-compounding is a combination of two subjects relating to one predicate, the first starting and the second concluding: e.g. I could read and count, so could my sister. The crew were getting out of the plane and the remaining passengers, too. The neighbours are not sleeping, neither are we. Both parents and the children admired the show. The semi-compound sentence of predicate coordination is derived from the clauses having identical subjects: e.g. They were against our plans of action, ignored and resented. She will be speaking of her lovely pet, how cute and clever he is. The monument looked massive but amazingly magnificent. I haven’t been listening or watching.

Key words:

composite sentence сложносоставное предложение

polypredicative unit полипредикативная единица

predicative line предикативная линия

situational event ситуативное событие

clause составная часть сложного предложения

Parataxis(coordination) Паратаксис (сочинение)

Hypotaxis (subordination) Гипотаксис (подчинение)

equipotently синтаксически равноценная позиция

compound sentence сложносочиненное предложение

coordinating clauses составные части связанные сочинением

complex sentence сложноподчиненное предложение

subordinating clauses составные части связанные подчинением

syndetic\conjunctional and asyndetic\non-conjunctional types of connection союзные и бессоюзные средства связи

principal clause главное предложение

subordinate clause придаточное предложение

subordinate connectors (pure conjunctions) коннекторы подчинительной связи (чистые союзы)

conjunctive substitutes союзные субституты

functional principle функциональный принцип

categorial principle категориальный принцип

substantive nominal (nounal) субстантивно именное (придаточное-существительное)

qualification nominal (adjectival) квалификативно именное (придаточное-прилагательное)

adverbial адвербиальное (придаточное-наречие)

subject clause придаточное-подлежащее

predicative clause придаточное-сказуеиое

object clause придаточное объектное

attributive clauses (descriptive) придаточное атрибутивное (описательное)

attributive clause (restrictive) придаточное атрибутивное (ограничительное)

attributive clause (appositive) придаточное атрибутитвное (аппозитивное)

adverbial clause придаточное обстоятельственное

clause of time and place придаточное времени и места

clause of manner and comparison придаточное образа действия и сравнения

clause of attendant circumstances придаточное сопутствующих обстоятельств

clause of condition придаточное условия

clause of cause and result придаточное причины и слествия

clause ofconcession придаточное уступки

clause of purpose придаточное цели

types of subordinatation arrangement:parallel homogeneous типы размещения подчиненности: параллельно размещенные однородные придаточные

types of subordination arrangement: heterogeneous типы размещения подчиненности: придаточные с разными центрами подчинения

types of subordination arrangement:consecutive типы размещения подчиненности: придаточные с последовательным подчинением

semi-complex sentence предложения усложненной структуры с подчинительной связью

fusion of explicit (primary) and implicit (secondary) predication слияние эксплицитной (первичной) и имплицитной (вторичной) предикации

semi-predicative expansion of sentence расширение предикативной линии через вторичную предикацию

position-sharing расширение синтаксической позиции

linear expansion линейное синтаксическое распространение

subject-sharing расширение позиции подлежащего

object-sharing расширение позиции объекта

attributive complication атрибутивное синтаксическое усложнение

adverbial complication адвербиальное синтаксическое усложнение

nominal complication усложнение именной позиции

coordinating connectors\coordinators коннекторы сочинительной связи

copulative копулятивное\последовательное сочинение

disjunctive разделительное сочинение

adversative противительное сочинение

consequential последовательно-результативное сочинение

explanatory объяснительное сочинение

clausal connectors of adverbial character коннекторы с признаками наречия

semi-compound sentence предложение усложненной структуры с сочинительной связью

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