TOPIC 5: Sentence as a predicative unit: structural, semantic, communicative aspects

5.1. Predication, its types and expression. Being grouped syntagmatically, words make up word-phrases which are used to form sentences, simple and composite, with features predetermined by the three aspects characteristic of a sentence as a syntactic speech unit: structural, semantic, functional. So the sentence is defined as an immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a meaning and contextually relevant communicate purpose. The principal distinguishing features characterize the sentence as the main language unit; the main syntactic unit; the main integral communicative unit of speech.

Unlike word-groups, sentences are distinguished by some peculiar properties such as: an intonation contour, predication, modality, a relative sense completion.

A sentence as product of human thought is essentially aimed to describe a situation of objective reality, represented as subject-predicate structure, called proposition; the link between subject and predicate is regarded as predication. To put it the other way, predication tends to be defined as act of relating a number of notions expressed by constituents of a sentence in order to describe a situation, an event. Predication is based on the following:

· the time correlation of the act of speech with the event nominated in the sentence which is grammatically expressed by the category of tense;

· the speaker’s relation to other persons or things mentioned in the sentence, which is grammatically expressed by the categories of person and number;

· the speaker’s attitude to the event from the viewpoint of reality, which is grammatically expressed by the category of mood.

Proceeding from the above principles, it must be admitted that with the help of its word-constituents the sentence, a predicative utterance – unit, presents some referents as making up a certain situational event showing the time of its occurrence, its being real or unreal, desirable or undesirable, necessary or unnecessary. Hence, the sentence is understood as a predicative entity naming a situation presented in a sentence structure by its predicative centre with the position of subject group and predicate group, connected syntactically with the help of predicative relations. It follows that there are basic patterns, in accordance with which sentences are built, and which are generated on the predication being of four types:

· double headed predication, with subject and predicate formally expressed as forming structural type of a two-member sentence;

· single headed predication, with either subject or predicate missing, as forming structural type of a one-member sentence: e.g. Open the door. How amazing! Nice meeting. Pretty good. Incredible!

· explicit predication creating the predicative line of explicitly expressed positions of subject and predicate;

· implicit predication creating the predicative line of implied positions of subject and predicate inferred through possible transformations inside. For instance, gerundial complexes, objective and subjective infinitival/participial constructions in the sentences: He is said to be doing well at school. She denied having made mistakes. We got lost not knowing the address.

Implicit predication is observed in the so called quasi-sentences or one-word sentences. They are used to perform a certain speech-communicative function and exist:

as short responses to inquiry: e.g. A real beauty? – Yes, indeed. Do you agree? – All right.

as expressing negation by negative particle ‘not, no, not yet, not at all’: e.g. Have you got a cigarette? – No. You don’t mind if I do? – Of course, not.

as conveying question, inquiry, doubt, request, greeting, excuse and expressed by separate components and phrases: e.g. Are you tired? – No. Why? I congratulate you. – Thank you. Eh? Her voice trembled. ‘Well?’ How do you do?

5.2. Classification of sentences: structural, semantic, communicative. The three aspects (structural, semantic, functional) lay the foundation for sentence classifications, based correspondingly on sentence structure, sentence meaning and purpose of communication.

As a formally organized unit, the sentence possesses structure, which is understood to be a constructive integration of words (noun groups, verb groups, adjective groups, adverb groups) occupying certain syntactic positions (of subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier) connected syntagmatically with syntactic relations (predicative, subordinate and coordinate).

According to their structure, sentences are classified as follows:

simple, with only one predicative line expressed by subject and predicate, and composite, with two or more predicative lines, namely, complex, semi-complex, compound, semi-compound: e.g. I was curious, though it wasn’t any of my business. If you continue in this way you will break her heart. You can’t expect all people to take your words for granted. I really don’t think of him being rude to his elders. Either he had recovered from panic, or he pretended to have. I turned the handle, and the door opened. Their conversation was unpleasant but rather instructing. They can, and do get their supplies from the outside;

complete, having full predication in the position of subject and predicate, and incomplete or elliptical, where missing parts are easily understood from the context: e.g. I bet you completely forgot it. – Not completely. He is not afraid of thinking! And of acting? Do you want to? – Extraordinarily;

two-member, where both the subject and the predicate are explicitly expressed in the outer structure, and one-member, with only one part being explicitly expressed, the other one – missing, included are the following: nounal (e.g. Who will meet us? – Mary. Silence! No wind), adjectival (e.g. What is your opinion? – Hard and ruthless. So kind of you!), verbal (e.g. Sit down! Do take a seat! Why not tell him?), modal words (e.g. Certainly! Alright! Of course), greeting, introduction formulas, incentives, excuses, etc. (e.g. Good morning! Thank you. Sorry!);

extended, having some other parts besides subject and predicate, or unextended, with the only positions of subject and predicate.

Simple two-member sentences are exposed to the syntactic process of extension through complementation of the positions of object, attribute and adverbial modifier (e.g. A film is on. An interesting film is currently on at the cinemanearby my home) and the syntactic process of expansion through enlargement of the component parts with the paratactic contaminations of homogeneous parts of the sentence or accumulative parts spread in attributive groups: e.g. The woman turned round the corner, crossed the street and walked into the door. Fields, woods were in deep snow. He bought an expensive fast American car. She looked stunningly beautiful in her embroidered hugging black evening dress.

Content or semantics of a sentence tends to be considered as semantic structure integrated of lexico-grammatical meanings of its constituents by the rules of their combinality based on colligation (grammatical valency) and collocation (lexical valency).

Commonly, a definite syntactic pattern corresponds to a semantic structure which leads to the semantic classification of the sentence done on the basis of the meaning conveyed by the subject and on the basis of the meaning conveyed by the predicate. In accordance with the first factor, sentences are divided into the groups:

Personal human (definite or indefinite): e.g. Someone has stolen his bike. Everybody felt happy. She works in a bank. Nobody will give me a hand;

Personal non-human (animate or inanimate): e.g. Winter has come. The river flows into the sea;

Impersonal factual: e.g. It is snowing heavily. It is fine. It was getting dark;

Impersonal perceptional: e.g. It seems interesting. It tastes awful.

Reflecting the semantics of the predicate, sentences fall into such types:

Actional indicating physically developed processes: e.g. He is doing well at school. They get to school by car;

Statal indicating the state of the process: e.g. I respect intelligent people. He did not sleep well at night;

Relational indicating social or personal relationships between people: e.g. He is her brother. They report directly to the supervising manager.

Created by the speaker in the course of communication out of units of language, words in particular, a contextually bound sentence is made up, playing the function of a complete unit of speech, intonationally delimited and aimed at a certain purpose of communication. Being a communicative unit, a sentence distinguishes four kinds of sentence according to the purpose of the utterance:

Declarative statements which state facts in affirmative or negative form: e.g. You can’t rely on him. He came up and greeted me.

Interrogative sentences of such types of questions as general, special, alternative and disjunctive: e.g. Shall I start from the very beginning? Where do you come from? Have you got a job or do you study? He’s away, isn’t he?

Imperative orders, commands, advice, request, which serve to induce a person to do sth: e.g. Don’t touch it. Look out. You try and do it.

Exclamatory sentences expressing various emotions: e.g. What a lovely day! How wonderful. How fast you are driving.

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