Vocabulary development

Before we go any further, it is important to distinguish type of language used in certain genre, socio-cultural conditions and style as individual peculiarity; a special role is played by the vocabulary in keeping particular register distinct with the purpose to convey ideas, give commentary, express critical opinion, etc.

Commonly, readers are supposed to record all the words and expressions they come across. However, extensive reading cannot be confined only to these procedures, mainly on account of the fact that command of English is not often sufficient enough to mark off the proper lexicon. Otherwise stated, reading could be considered as carrier of information that should be observed and attended to with subsequent performance around major topical points: if the reader manages to comprehend the text, he begins to understand the proper choice of words, thus acquiring the ability to use the vocabulary effectively to the best advantage. As long as we master reading comprehensively, we enlarge and diversify its lexical background: one is bound to familiarize oneself with the variety of expression, and therefore one’s own style improves subconsciously. Hence, elaboration of special techniques becomes a must and consists in separation of the text into ultimate meaningful arrangements enabling the reader to proceed step by step on the way to proper understanding. Clearly, the goal is not to offer a closed inventory of lexical items but to attract attention to existing association and interactive relationships between different specimens of English vocabulary. In this respect, it is possible to single out the following:

· words of general language functioning, used both in every day situations and professional settings as a means of spoken and written interaction;

· words of general scientific vocabulary, not specialized enough to become terms but occurring in formal context and registers - constituting thematic word maps

· covering subject areas divided into Arts (education, history, linguistics, politics, psychology, sociology), Commerce (economics, industrial relations, management, marketing, public policy), Law (constitutional law, criminal law, family law, international law), Science (computer science, biology, geography, ecology);

· lexical items like terms of standard use identified with the conceptual foundation of some industries, sciences, professional areas and functions;

· systematic organization of the vocabulary with the focus on associative/paradigmatic relations realized as derivatives, synonymic/antonymic series, pairs of general vs particular, sets of related items around topical areas; - and syntagmatic relations reproduced in recurrent patterns of lexical-phraseological collocation and syntactic colligation;

· words with changed meaning (narrowing\widening) and innovative coinages recently having entered the lexicon to name a new concept, trend, procedure or approach and represented in modern reference books, glossaries, dictionaries as well electronic media; mainly, these are words and expressions questionable from the point of view of the user, requiring comment and explanation, taking into account range of connotations, positive or negative, emotional or neutral;

· expressive variation in functional use embedded in metaphors and idioms as part of stylistic interplay.

Follow up tasks:

1. What does comprehension of the text imply in the view of its vocabulary?

2. Is it enough to record unknown words and expressions? Why?

3. Tell difference between words of general language use, words of general scientific vocabulary, terms of standard use, words with changed meaning.

4. In what subject areas can you make up certain word maps?

5. How are paradigmatic/syntagmatic relations realized in vocabulary organization?

6. What items of the vocabulary require special comments?

Reading strategies:

- You may not understand every word in the passage, so guess the meaning from the context; if you have no idea – ask yourself if it contributes positive or negative meaning to the sentence.

- If an unfamiliar word does not affect your understanding of the text, ignore it.

- The more frequently unfamiliar words appear, the more important they are likely to be crucial for comprehension and you need to work out what it means from the general context of the text, words before or after the unknown word, phrases which expand or explain the meaning.

- Make a note of keywords/phrases and associated vocabulary.

- Note that the keywords may not be written exactly in the same way; the corresponding item may contain substituted words or those with a similar meaning.

- Recognize cases of substitution with the help of paraphrases fitting into the content.

- Recognize groups of words with the same pattern, a similar pattern, a less recognizable patter.

- When considering a word or phrase, distinguish them according to their function as parts of speech.

- Remember about alternative ways of expressing the same meaning by synonyms, explanations or examples.

- Focus on the words that link and relate ideas or emphasise the author’s point.

Study skills:

- guess unknown words and expressions from the context;

- deduce the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items by using analogy;

- recognize paraphrased meaning of common expressions;

- make inferences related to the writer’s choice of words;

- distinguish between literal and figurative language;

- deal with unfamiliar words in context.

II. Activate activities:

As far as the learner of English is concerned, there is an essential side to his reading: he has to bother himself with an important question of acceptability of certain content in the view of a modern philologist. Thus readers are encountered with the problem of usability of a text as the model to be imitated, i.e. how to carry out their own performance activating covered content on critical thinking basis. It is essential that a reader is able to respond appropriately to the retrieved information rather than merely describe it but identify oneself with ideas by expressing opinions, giving reasons, speculating, hypothesizing, agreeing/disagreeing, justifying, and in the end assertively negotiating. To put it differently, responses need to go beyond pure description and contain a speculative problem-solving element.

So the reader is encouraged to think about implications of the information contained, providing his own point of view on the aspects of the topic discussed.

Follow up tasks:

1. How is the reader’s response expressed?

2. What does critical thinking mean?

3. How can the reader elicit implications of the information contained in the text?

Reading strategies:

- Develop debate based on different interpretations of a single text.

- Learn how to elicit implications of the information contained.

- Take up critical stance getting oneself to think.

- Relate the reading to your personal values and attitudes.

- Uncover the topic and main idea in the view of your opinion.

- Produce response appropriately: work out arguments for/against, assertively state your point of view, agree/disagree, build up reasoning, criticize, suggest alternatives, summarize, generalize, contradict, exemplify, make comparisons

- Look beyond printed words and use intelligence to infer problems to talk about.

Study skills:

- establish a set of problem-solving criteria;

- draw conclusions based on evidence;

- infer logical conclusions;

- understand issues behind facts;

- differentiate fact from opinion;

- account for different views;

- consider a variety of consequences;

- critically evaluate all positions;

- organize own ideas and communicate them effectively;

- develop a positive, unbiased attitude.

Here comes the sample of a reading passage (From Academic reading in Cambridge Vocabulary for IELTS, p.19-20).

In prehistoric times, the physical changes in response to stress were an essential adaptation for meeting natural threats. Even in the modern world, the stress response can be an asset for raising levels of performance during critical events such as sport activities, important meetings, or in situations of actual danger or crisis. If stress becomes persistent and low-level, however, all parts of the body’s stress apparatus (the brain, heart, lungs, vessels and muscles) become chronically over- or under-activated. This may produce physical or psychological damage over time. Acute stress can also be harmful in certain situations.

Studies suggest that the inability to deal with stress is associated with the onset of depression or anxiety. In one study, two-thirds of subjects who experienced a stressful situation had nearly six times a risk of developing depression within the month. Some evidence suggests that repeated release of stress hormones disrupts normal levels of serotonin, the nerve chemical that is critical for feelings of well-being. Certainly, on a more obvious level, stress diminishes the quality of life by reducing feelings of pleasure and accomplishment, and relationships are often threatened.

Nevertheless, some stress may be beneficial. For example, although some research has suggested that stress may be a risk factor for a suicide (a 2003 study found a higher risk for suicide in women reporting both low and very high stress), those with moderate stress levels had the lowest risk.

When it comes to heart disease, the effects of mental stress are controversial. Stress can certainly influence the activity of the heart when it activates the sympathetic nervous system, the automatic part of the nervous system that affects many organs, including the heart. Such actions and others could theoretically negatively affect the heart in several different ways.

Nevertheless, evidence is still needed to confirm any clear-cut relationship between stress and heart disease. For example, a study in Scotland found no greater risk for actual heart disease or heart events even in men who reported higher mental stress. In fact, higher stress was associated with fewer heart events, although men with high stress levels did tend to complain of chest pain and to go to hospital for it more often than those with lower stress levels. Evidence has linked stress to heart disease in men, particularly in work situations where they lack control. The association with stress and heart problems in women is weaker and there is some evidence that the ways women cope with stress may be more heart-protective. In one study, for example, men were more apt than women to use alcohol or eat less healthily in response to stress than women, which might account for their higher heart risks from stress. Different stress factors may affect genders differently. In another study, word stress was associated with a higher risk for heart disease in men, but marital stress – not work stress – was associated with more severe heart disease in women with existing heart problems.

Stress can have varying effects on eating problems and weight. Often stress is related to weight gain and obesity. Many people develop cravings for salt, fat and sugar to counteract tension and, thus, gain weight. Weight gain can occur even with a healthy diet in some people exposed to stress. In the studies, lean women who gained weight in response to stress tended to be less able to adapt to and manage stressful conditions. The release of cortisol, a major stress hormone, appears to promote abdominal fat and may be the primary connection between stress and weight gain in such people. In contrast some people suffer a loss of appetite and consequently lose weight. In rare cases, stress may trigger hyperactivity of the thyroid gland, stimulating appetite but causing the body to burn up calories at a faster than normal rate. Chronically elevated levels of stress chemicals have been observed in patients with anorexia and bulimia. Some studies, however, have not found any strong link between stress and eating disorders.

Chronic pain caused by arthritis and other conditions may be intensified by stress. However, according to a study on patients with rheumatoid arthritis, stress management techniques do not appear to have much effect on pain. Some studies have clearly linked dissatisfaction and depression to back pain, although it is still unclear if stress is a direct cause. Tension-type headaches are frequently associated with stress and stressful events. Some research suggests that headache sufferers may actually have some biological predisposition for translating stress into muscle contractions.

The tensions of unresolved stress frequently cause insomnia, generally keeping the stressed person awake or causing awakening in the middle of the night or early morning. In fact, evidence suggests that stress hormones can increase during sleep in anticipation of a specific waking time. However, there is some hope for sufferers in this area as relaxation therapy has been found to reduce stress levels and consequently improve the quality of sleep

Поиск по сайту: