ГЛОССАРИЙ ТЕРМИНОВ ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИИ СОВРЕМЕННОГО АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

A

Affix (affixational morpheme) - a morpheme which is always bound to a stem e.g., unmistakable, unpardonable, irregular ity, affixes are subdivided into prefixes, suffixes and infixes according to their position (see prefix, suffix, infix), e.g., un-, dis-, re-, -fid, -less, -able, etc.

Affixation - is the formation of new words by adding derivative af fixes to derivational bases or stems, e.g., kind + ness, grate + ful, un + happy, im + moral, etc.

Allomorphs - positional variants of a morpheme characterized by complementary distribution (they are used in mutually exclusive environment and stand in alternation with each other), e.g., allomorphs of the prefix in- are: il- (illegal), ir- (irregular), im- (impos-sible), etc.

Americanism - a word or a set expression peculiar to the English Ian guage as spoken in the USA, e.g., cookie - biscuit (Br.E.), fall - ail tumn (Br.E.), truck- lorry (Br.E.), movies - pictures (Br.E.), side walk- pavement (Br.E.), etc.

Antonyms - words of the same parts of speech different in sound form, opposite in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable in some contexts, e.g., short - long, to begin - to end regular - irregular, day - night, thick - thin, early - late, etc.

Aphaeresis, aphesis - initial clipping, i.e. the formation of a word by the omission of the initial part of the word, e.g., phone from telephone, mend from amend, story from history, etc.

Apocope - final clipping, i.e. the omission of the final part of the word, e.g., exam from examination, gym from gymnasium or gym nasties, lab from laboratory, ref from referee, etc.

Archaic - that has censed to be used except in poetry, church ritual, etc.

Archaisms - obsolete words that drop out of the language, e.g., damsel, whilom, woe, betwixt, etc.

Assimilation (of a loan word) - a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the English language and its semantic system.

Asyntactical compounds - compounds whose components are placed in the order that contradicts the rules of English syntax, e.g., snow-white (N + A) (in syntax: white snow - A + N), pale-green - A + A, etc. (see syntactic compounds).

В

Back-formation - derivation of a new word by subtracting a real or supposed affix from an existing word, e.g., to sculpt - sculptor, to beg - beggar, to burgle - burglar, etc.

Barbarisms - unassimilated borrowings or loan words, used by English people in conversation or in writing, printed initalics, or ininverted commas, e.g., such French phrases as топ cher - my dear, tete-a-tete -face to face, bon mot- а witty saying, apropos -in connection with, or Italian words, addio, ciao - good bye.

Blending or telescoping - formation of a word by merging parts of words (not morphemes) into one new word; the result is a blend, fusion (or a portmanteau word), e.g., smog (smoke + fog), transceiver (transmitter + receiver), motel (motor + hotel), brunch (breakfast + lunch), etc.

Borrowings (also loan words) - words taken over from another language and (partially or totally) modified in phonetic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language, e.g., rickshaw (Chinese), sherbet (Arabian), ballet, cafe, machine, cartoon, police (French), etc.

Bound form (stem or morpheme) - a form (morpheme) which must always be combined with another morpheme (i.e. always bound to some other morpheme) and cannot stand in isolation, e.g., nat- in native, nature, nation; all affixes are bound forms.

C

Cliche - a term or phrase which has become hackneyed and stale, e.g., to usher in a new age (era), astronomical figures, the arms of Morpheus, swan song, the irony of fate, etc.

Clipping- formation of a word by cutting off one or several syllables of a word, e.g., doc (from doctor), phone (from telephone), etc. (see abbreviation, apocope, aphaeresis, syncope).

Cockney - the regional dialect of London marked by some deviations in pronunciation and few in vocabulary and syntax, e.g., fing stands for thing, farver for farther, gam for go on, toff for a person of the upper class.

Cognates (cognate words) - words descended from a common ancestor, e.g., brother (English), брат (Russian), frater (Latin), Bruder (German).

Collocation - habitual lexico-phraseological association of a word in a language with other particular words in a sentence, e.g., to pay attention to, to meet the demands, cold war, etc.

Colloquial (of words, phrases, style) - belonging to, suitable for, or related to ordinary; not formal or literary conversation, e.g., there you are, you see, here's to us, to have a drink, etc.

Combinability (occurrence-range, collocability, valency) -the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.

Composition - see word-composition.

Compounding - see word-composition.

Compound-derivative or derivational compound - a word built by composition in which one stem is derived, e.g., blue-eyed, old-timer, teenager, kind-hearted, etc.

Compound words or compounds - words consisting of two stems which occur in the language as free forms, e.g., tradesman, Anglo-Saxon, sister-in-law, honeymoon, passer-by, etc.

Concept (syn. notion) - an idea or thought, especially a generalized idea of a class of objects, the reflection in the mind of real objects and phenomena in their essential features and relations.

Connotation - complementary meaning or complementary semantic and (or) stylistic shade which is added to the word's main meaning and which serves to express all sorts of emotional, expressive, evaluative overtones.

Connotational (meaning) - the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the word.

Content - the main substance or meaning, e.g., the content of a poem is distinguished from its form.

Context - the minimum stretch of discourse necessary and sufficient to determine which of the possible meanings of a polysemantic word is used.

Contrastive distribution - characterizes different morphemes, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings (see complementary distribution), e.g., the suffixes -able and -ed are different morphemes, because adjectives in -able mean capable of being, e.g., measurable, whereas -ed has a resultant force, e.g. measured.

Conversion (root formation, functional change, zero-derivation) ~ the formation of a new word of one part of speech from the stem or word-form of another part of speech by changing its paradigm and environmental characteristics of a word of one part of speech, so that the resulting word is homonymous with the original one, e.g. water (n) -to water (v); dry (adj) - to dry (v); must (v) - a must (n), go (v) - a go (n).

Contextual synonyms - words (synonyms) similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions (in some contexts), e.g. bear, suffer and stand when used in the negative construction can't bear, can't suffer, can't stand become synonyms.

Coordinative (or copulative) compounds - compounds whose components are structurally and semantically independent and constitute two structural and semantic centres, e.g., actor-manager, fifty fifty, secretary-stenographer, etc.

D

Denotation (see referent) — the direct, explicit meaning or reference of a word or term.

Denotational (or denotative) meaning - the component of the lexical meaning which makes communication possible, i.e. the component of meaning signifying or identifying the notion or the object and reflecting some essential features of the notion named; see referential meaning.

Derivation - the process of forming new words by affixes, conversion, shortening, abbreviation, back-formation, e.g. work — worker, kind — unkind hand – to hand, victory - v. Some scholars include sound interchange into derivation, too.

Derivational affix - an affix which serves to form new words, e.g. -less in help less or dis- in dislike, etc.

Derivational suffix — a suffix serving to form new words, e.g. read- able, helpless, useful, etc. (see suffix).

Derivative (syn. derived word) - a word formed through derivation, e.g. manhood, rewrite, unlike, etc.

Derived stem - a stem (usually a polymorphemic one) built by means of derivation;

Descriptive approach - see synchronic approach.

Deverbal noun - a noun formed from a verb by conversion, e.g. to buy - a buy, must - a must, to cut - a cut, etc.

Diachronic or historic approach (in lexicology) - the study of the vocabulary in its historical development, see synchronic approach.

Dialect (local) - a variety of the English language peculiar to some district and having no normalized literary form, e.g. Cockney, Northern, Midland, Eastern dialects of England, etc., see variant.

Dictionary - a book of words in a language usually listed alphabetically with definitions, translations, pronunciations, etymologies and other linguistic information. Kinds of dictionaries: bilingual, encyclopaedic, etymological, explanatory, general, ideographic, linguistic, multilingual, phraseological, pronouncing, special, unilingual etc.

Differential meaning (of a morpheme) - the semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from the others containing identical morphemes, e.g. cranberry, blueberry, blackberry.

Distributional meaning (of a morpheme) - the meaning of the order and arrangement of morphemes making up the word, cf, ring-finger and finger ring.

Distributional pattern - a phrase (word) all elements of which in eluding the head-word are coded, e.g. to hear smb sing (V + N/pron + V,), copybook (N + N), red-haired (A + N+ suffix).

E

Elevation of meaning see amelioration.

Ellipsis - the omission of a word or words considered essential for grammatical completeness but easily understood in the context, e.g. daily (paper), (cut-price) sale, private (soldier), etc.

Emotive charge - a part of the connotational component of meaning evoking or directly expressing emotion, e.g. cf: girl and girlie.

Endocentric compounds - compounds whose two components are clearly the determinant (qualifier) and the determinatum (head-component), i.e. compounds which have the same function as their head members, e.g. spaceship, blackboard.

Etymological doublet - either of two words of the same language which were derived by different routes from the same basic word, e.g. chase - catch, chieftan - captain, chattels - cattle, disc - dish, shirt — skirt, scar — share, one — an, raid — road, etc.

Etymology - a branch of lexicology dealing with the origin and history of words, especially with the history of form.

Euphemism - a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one, e.g. to be no more for to die; to tell stories, to distort the facts for to lie; remains for corpse; paying guest for lodger.

Exocentric compounds - compounds whose determinatum (head-component) is obviously missing - implied and understood but not formally expressed, e.g. a pickpocket, a killjoy, etc.

Extension (generalization or widening) of meaning - changes of meaning resulting in the application of a word to a wider variety of referents. It includes the change both from concrete to abstract and from specific to general, e.g. journal originally meant daily, a thing originally meant meeting, decision, salary originally meant salt money, pioneer originally meant soldier.

F

Familiar quotations come from literature but by and by they become part and parcel of the language, e.g. to be or not to be, tabula rasa — a blank tablet, ad hoc - for this special purpose, etc.

Form words, also called functional words, empty words or auxiliaries are lexical units used only in combination with notional words or in reference to them, e.g. auxiliary verbs - do, be, have, prepositions — in, at, for, conjunctions — while, since, etc.

Free forms - forms which may stand alone without changing their meaning, i.e. forms homonymous with words, e.g. the root-morpheme teach- in teacher.

Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words, e.g. first-nighter.

Functional (or grammatical) affixes - affixes serving to build different (grammatical) forms of one and the same word, e.g. -(e)s in boys, classes, -ed in worked, etc.

Functional approach to meaning - an approach showing that the meaning of a linguistic unit (word) may be studied only through its relation to other linguistic units (words) and not through its relation to either concept or referent, i.e. it views the meaning as the function of distribution, see referential approach to meaning.

Functional meaning (of a morpheme) - the part-of-speech meaning of the morpheme, e.g. the part-of-speech meaning of the suffixes -ize in verbs and -ice — in nouns as in the words realize and justice, etc.

Fusion - see blend(ing), also phraseological fusions. from OE rade that meant prepared for a ride, animal from Latin anima soul.

G

Glossary - a list of special or difficult terms with explanations or translations, often included in the alphabetical order at the end of a book.

Grammatical homonyms — homonyms that differ in grammatical meaning only (i.e. homonymous word-forms of one and the same word), e.g. cut (infinitive) - cut (past participle); boys - boy's.

Grammatical meaning - the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of grammatical forms of different words as, e.g., the meaning of the plural number in the word-forms of nouns: books, tables, etc., grammatical meaning expresses in speech the relationship between words.

H

Historism - an archaic (obsolete) word which denotes a thing that is outdated nowadays (see archaism), e.g. lyre, serf, blunderbuss, etc.

Homographs — words identical in spelling but different both in their sound-form and meaning, e.g. bow [bou] лук - bow [bau] поклон, row [rou] ряд - row [ran] ссора, etc.

Homonyms - words identical in sound or spelling (or in both) but different in meaning (in semantic structure), e.g. sound (adj) -sound (n).

Homonyms proper (syn. absolute, perfect) - words identical in pronunciation and spelling, e.g. temple- висок, temple- храм, seal- печать, seal— тюлень, etc.

Homonyms, etymological (syn. historical homonyms) — homonyms that are etymologically different words, e.g. sea - море, to see -видеть, bear- медведь, to bear- рождать, etc.

Homonyms, full — words that are homonymous in all their forms, e.g. seal— тюлень, seal- печать.

Homonyms, grammatical - words that have homonymous forms of the same word, e.g. he asked — he was asked, boys' — boys, etc.

Homonyms, lexical - words that differ in lexical meaning, e.g. knight (рыцарь) — night (ночь), ball (мяч) — ball (бал), etc. Homonyms, lexico-grammatical - words that differ both in lexical

and grammatical meaning, e.g. swallow- ласточка, to swallow -глотать, well— источник, well- хорошо, etc.

Homonyms, partial — words that are homonymons in some of their forms, e.g. brothers (pi) - brother's (poss. case), etc. Homophones - words identical in sound-form but different both in spelling and in meaning, e.g. to know - no, not - knot, to meet - meat, etc.

Hybrid — a word made up of elements derived from two or more different languages, e.g. fruitless (Fr. + native), readable (native + Fr.), unmistakable (native + native + Fr.), schoolgirl (Gk. + native), etc.

Hyperbole - an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally but expressing an emotional attitude of the speaker to what he is speaking about, e.g. Lovely! Awful! Splendid! For ages, heaps of time, floods of tears, a world of good, etc.

Hyponymy - type of paradigmatic relationship when a specific term is included in a generic one, e.g. pup is the hyponym of dog, and dog is the hyponym of animal, etc.

I

Ideographic (relative) synonyms — synonyms denoting different shades of meaning or different degrees of intensity (quality), e.g. large, huge, tremendous; pretty, beautiful, fine; leave, depart, quit, retire; understand, realize, etc.

Idiom - an accepted phrase, word-group, or expression the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its components and the way they are put together, e.g. to talk through one's hat, to smell a rat, a white elephant, red tape, etc.

Idiomatic (syn. non-motivated) - lacking motivation from the point of view of one's mother tongue.

Indirect borrowings - semantic borrowings and translation-loans.

Infix - an affix placed within the stem (base), e.g. stand and stood. Infixes are not productive in English.

International words - words borrowed from one language into several others simultaneously or at short intervals one after another, e.g. biology, student, Communism, etc.

J

Juxtaposition - the way of forming compounds by placing the stems side by side without any linking elements. It is very productive in English, e.g. airline, postman, blue-bell, waterfall, house-keeper, etc.

Juxtapositional compound - a compound whose components are joined together without any linking elements, i.e. by placing one component after another in a definite order, e.g. door-handle, snow-white, etc.

L

Lexical meaning - the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit, i.e. recurrent in all the forms of this word and in all the possible distributions of these forms.

Lexical valency (or valence,) - the aptness of a word to appear in various combinations with other words. Lexicography - a branch of applied lexicology concerned with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Lexicology - a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words, word-equivalents and word-collocations.

Litotes or understatement - a word or word-group which expresses the affirmative by the negation of its contrary, e.g. not bad for good, not small for great, no coward for brave, etc.

M

Meaning -an essential aspect of any linguistic sign (word) reflecting objective reality in our consciousness. The relation between the object or notion named and the name itself.

Metaphor - transfer of meaning on the basis of a similarity of some sort (in shape, in size, in function, in color, etc.) between the established referent of a word and some new referent, e.g. a stony heart, the head of cabbage, star - a leading actress, etc.

Metonymy - transfer of meaning based on contiguity, i.e. by naming a closely related object or idea, e.g. chair meaning the presiding officer, town meaning the inhabitants of the town.

Morpheme - the smallest linguistic unit possessing meaning (or the minimum meaningful unit of language), e.g. un-luckily has four morphemes, see root morphemes and affixes.

Morphemic analysis -splitting the word into its constituent morphemes and determining their number and types.

Morphological compound — a compound whose components are joined together with a linking element, e.g. speedometer, handiwork, spokesman, etc.

Motivated (non-idiomatic, transparent) words are characterized by a direct connection between their morphemic or phonemic composition and their meaning, e.g. motorway, friendship, boom, cuckoo, etc.

Motivated word-groups are word-groups whose combined lexical meaning can be deduced from the meaning of their component-members, e.g. to declare war, head of an army, to make a bargain, to cut short, to play chess, etc.

Motivation - the relationship between the morphemic or phonemic composition of the word and its meaning, e.g. schoolchild, moo, tick, etc.

N

Narrowing of meaning (or specialization) - the restriction of the semantic capacity of a word in the course of its historical development, e.g. meat originally meant food, dear originally meant beast, hound originally meant dog, etc.

Neologism — a new word or word equivalent formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed from another language; a new meaning of an established word, e.g. dictaphone, travelogue, monoplane, multi-user, pocketphone, sunblock, etc.

О

Occasionalism — a word or a word-combination created in each case anew, e.g. living metaphors whose predictability is not apparent, e.g. the ex-umbrella man, a horse-faced woman, a gazelle-eyed youth, cobra-headed anger, etc.

Onomatopoeia (syn. sound imitation, echoism, sound symbolism) -the formation of a word by imitating the natural sound associated with the object or action involved, e.g. buzz, cuckoo, tinkle, cock-a-doodle-do, etc.

P

Paradigm - the system of grammatical forms characteristic of a word, e.g. to write, wrote, written, writing, writes; girl, girl's, girls, girls', etc.

Paronyms are words kindred in sound form and meaning and therefore liable to be mixed but in fact different in meaning and usage and therefore only mistakenly interchanged, e.g. to affect - to effect, allusion — illusion, ingenious — ingenuous, etc.

Phrase (syn. collocation, word-combination, word-group) - a lexical unit comprising more than one word, e.g. to go to school, a red apple, etc.

Phraseological collocations (combinations) — motivated phraseological units made up of words possessing specific lexical valency which accounts for a certain degree of stability and strictly limited variability of member-words, e.g. to bear a grudge or to bear a malice, to win the race, to gain access, etc.

Phraseological fusions (idioms) - completely non-motivated invariable phraseological units whose meaning has no connection whatsoever (at least synchronically) with the meaning of the components (i.e. it cannot be deduced from the knowledge of components), e.g. to pay through the nose (to pay a high price); red tape (bureaucratic methods), etc.

Phraseological units (syn. set expressions, fixed combinations, units of fixed context, idioms) - partially motivated or non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units.

Phraseology - a branch of linguistics studying set-phrases - phraseological units of all kinds.

Polymorphic - having two or more morphemes, e.g. inseparable, boyishness, impossibility, etc.

Polysemantic words - having more than one meaning, e.g. board, power, case, etc.

Polysemy - plurality of meanings, i.e. co-existence of the various meanings of the same word and the arrangement of these meanings in the semantic structure of the word, e.g. maid 1) a girl, 2) a woman servant.

Prefix - a derivational affix (morpheme) placed before the stem, e.g. un- (unkind), mis- (misuse), etc. Kinds of prefixes: borrowed, e.g. re-, ex-, sub-, ultra-, поп-, etc.; native, e.g. un-, under-, after-, etc.; non-productive (unproductive), e.g. in- (H-, im-, ir-j, etc.; productive, e.g. un-, de-, поп-, etc.

Prefixation - the formation of words with the help of prefixes. It is productive in Modern English, especially so in verbs and adjective word-formation.

Productive affixes - affixes which participate in the formation of new words, in neologisms in particular, i.e. which are often used to form new words; opposite non-productive (unproductive).

Productivity - the ability of a given affix to form new words.

Proverb - a sentence expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way, e.g. a friend in need is a friend indeed, while there is life there is hope, make hay while the sun shines, etc.

R

Radiation - a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays, e.g. face, power, piece, etc.

Reduplication - a method of forming compounds by the repetition of the same root, e.g. to pooh-pooh, goody-goody, etc.

Reduplicative compound - a compound formed with the help of reduplication, e.g. tick-tick, hush-hush, etc.

Referent (denotatum) - the part (aspect) of reality to which the linguistic sign refers (objects, actions, qualities), etc.

Referential approach to meaning- the school of thought which seeks to formulate the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between the word (sound-form), the concept (reference) underlying this form and the actual referent.

Referential meaning (denotational) meaning - denoting, or referring to something, either by naming it John, boy, red, arrive, with, if, or by pointing it out be this so.

Root (morpheme) the elements of the word conveying the fundamental lexical meaning (e.g. the lexical neucleus of the word) common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word family, e.g. speak, speaker, speech, spoken.

S

Semantic - relating to meaning, dealing with meaning in language.

Semantic changes - changes of meaning, see amelioration, degradation, extension, narrowing of meaning.

Semantic field - a grouping of words based on the connection of the notions underlying their meanings, e.g. face, head, hand, arm, foot, etc.

Semantic fields - ideographic groups of words and expressions grouped together according to the fields of human interest and activity which they represent, e.g. the semantic field of time.

Semantic level of analysis - aimed at establishing the word's semantic structure or the type of meaning in which the word under analysis is used in a given context, e.g. sense is a polysemantic word, contemptuous is a monosemantic word.

Semantic loan (borrowing) - the development in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language, e.g. pioneer- 1) (old meaning) explorer, 2) (new meaning) a member of the Young Pioneer Organization (appeared under the influence of Russian).

Semantic motivation - based on the co-existence of direct and figurative meanings. When a word is used in a transferred meaning, metaphorical or otherwise, the result will be semantically motivated: it will be transparent thanks to the connection between the two senses, e.g. head of an army, household and head of cabbage, the root of an evil, the branches of science, etc.

Semantics - see semasiology.

Semasiology - the branch of lexicology that is devoted to the study of meaning.

Semi-affixes (semi-suffixes) - elements which stand midway between root-morphemes and affixes, i.e. root-morphemes functioning as derivational affixes, e.g. -man (in seaman, airman, workman, chairman, etc.), -like (childlike, gentleman like, business like, etc; -proof (fire-proof, water -proof), etc.

Semiotics (Semiology) - the science dealing with various systems of signs (including all sorts of codes, military and traffic signals, languages in general, etc.).

Set expression - see phraseological unit.

Simile - a comparison, but an indirect one, using words, such as seem, like, or as to link two objects of the comparison, e.g. My love is like a melody. I wandered lonely as a cloud, etc.

Sound imitation - see onomatopoeia.

Sound interchange - a diachronically relevant unproductive way of word-formation due to an alteration in the phonetic composition of the root, i.e. consonant interchange and vowel interchange (umlaut, or vowel mutation, and ablaut, or vowel gradation), e.g. to speak - speech, to prove -proof, blood - to bleed, food - to feed, etc.

Sound symbolism - associating a certain type or class of meaning with a certain sound or cluster of sounds, e.g. there seems to be in English an association between the initial consonant cluster (sn) and the nose, e.g. snarl, sneer, sneeze, sniff, snore, snort, snuffle.

Specialization of meaning - see narrowing.

Standard English - the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the radio and the television and spoken by educated people, it may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood.

Stem - 1) the part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm (secondary stem), e.g. worker, lucky - the secondary stems are: worker- (cf. workers, worker's) and lucky- (cf. luckier, luckiest); 2) the part on which a new word is built

Style of language a system of expressive means of language peculiar to a specific sphere of communication, e.g. the newspaper style, the belles-letres style, etc.

Stylistic level of analysis is aimed at establishing the stylistic colouring of the word, e.g. nourishmentis a word of literary style, threatis a word of neutral style, baccy (curtailment of tobacco) is a word of colloquial style.

Stylistics - a branch of general linguistics dealing with the study of language styles and stylistic devices.

Stylistic synonyms - words that are similar in their denotational meaning(s) but different in their connotational meaning(s), e.g. motherly - maternal, to put off - to postpone, cf. absolute (total, complete) synonyms.

Subordinative (often called determinative) compound - a compound whose components are not equal in importance. The relation between them is based on the domination of one component over the other. The second component in these compounds is the structural and semantic centre (head) which imparts the part-of-speech meaning to the whole word, e.g. banknote, teaspoon, duty-free, grandson, etc.

Substantivation – a type of conversion, building adj from nouns, e.g. female (n) from female (ad)), relative (n) from relative (ad)), criminal (n) from criminal (ad)), etc.

Substitution - the method of testing similarity (or difference) by placing into identical environment (within identical or similar contexts), e.g. / know this book -1 know it.

Suffix - a morpheme (an affix) placed after the stem, e.g. -ness (goodness), -less (friend less), -er (worker), etc.

Suffixal derivative - a word formed with the help of a suffix.

Suffixation - the formation of words with the help of suffixes. It is very productive in Modern English, especially so in noun and adjective word-formation, e.g. actor, thirsty, etc.

V

Valency (valence) - the combining power or typical cooccurrence of a linguistic element, i.e. the types of other elements of the same level with which it can occur; see lexical valency. Kinds of valency: lexical valency - the aptness of a word to occur with other words, grammatical valency - the aptness of a word to appear in specific syntactic structures.

Valency of affixes - the types of stems with which they occur.

Variants (of some language) - regional varieties of a language possess ing literary form, e.g. Scottish English, British English, American English, see dialect.

Vocabulary - the system formed by the sum total of all the words and word equivalents of a language.

W

Word - a fundamental autonomous unit of language consisting of a series of phonemes and conveying a certain concept, idea or meaning, which has gained general acceptance in a social group of people speaking the same language and historically connected (one of general definitions); another definition - a basic autonomous unit of language resulting from the association of a given meaning with a given group of sounds which is susceptible of a given grammatical employment and able to form a sentence by itself. Structurally words are inseparable lexical units taking shape in a definite system of grammatical forms and syntactic characteristics which gives possibility to distinguish it both from morphemes and word groups.

Word-composition (also composition or compounding) - the way of forming new words by putting two stems together to build a new word. Composition is very productive in Modern English. It is characteristic of noun and adjective formation, e.g. head ache, typewriter, killjoy, somebody, mother-in-law, wastepaper bas ket, Anglo-Saxon; pitch-dark, home-made, etc.

Z

Zoosemy - nicknaming from animals, i.e. when names of animals are used metaphorically to denote human qualities, e.g. atiger stands for a cruel person, a fox stands for a crafty person, a chicken stands for a lively child, an ass or a goose stands for a stupid person, a bear stands for a clumsy person, etc.

Библиография

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