Types of motivation

1) PHONETICAL. Words have their sounding structure similar to the sound which they convey (bark – гавкати, buzz – дзижчати, crack – тріщати, hiss – шипіти, сичати). in comparison to other types of motivation their number in Eng. is adout 1.08%, in Ukr. – 0.8%.

2) MOPHOLOGICAL. In contrasted languages is the major one (constitute the largest part of their motivated lexicon - 88.5% in Eng, 91.8% in Ukr). It is characteristic of numerous notional words, in which it is clearly indicated by affixal morphemes. (f.e. by suffixes: do er one who does smth, mov able smth that can be moved; Ukr.: оповід ач той, хто оповідає/розповідає, чита юч ий який читає.By prefixal morphemes: a sleep the one who is in the state of sleeping, over turn to turn smth. Перед історія, в четрвете, по верх (чогось). All morphologically motivated compounds have their lexical meaning composed of lexical meaning pertaining to each of their parts, air-crew is a crew of an aircraft, note-book (book for notes), classroom/ домовласник, марнотратство, користолюбство.

3) SEMANTIC. Is displayed by figurative/connotative meaning of words or phrases, representing the transferred meaning of their denotata. Cf. foot of the mountain підніжжя гори, bed of a river русло річки, the house of Tudor династія Тюдорів. Many similar examples – observed in Ukr: купатися в розкошах, легка/важка рука. Their meanings are very transparent and mostly need no further explanation.

Some words denoting in the contrasted languages popular names of flowers, trees, birds, animals have a transparent etymological motivation. Thus, in Eng.& Ukr. Bluet (flower) is васильок, bluebell is дзвоник, violet means фіалка, sunflower соняшник. Ukr./Byelorus. Names of months Cf. січень (сніг січе), квітень (перші квіти), липень (липа зацвітає)… Semantic motivation is idiomatic expressions as well: not for time or money (ні за що в світі), like 2 drops of water? Язик до Києва доведе.

24. Lacunae in English & Ukrainian.

A lexical gap or lacuna is an absence of a word in a particular language. Several types of lexical gaps are possible, such as untranslatability, missing inflections, or nonsense words.

Means of enreaching the vocabelary of any language

Though languages are divergent typologically, they posess the same sources for new means of designation, i.e. 4 types of means of enreaching the vocabelary of any language, their correlation is quite allomorphic in gifferent languages. They are:

1) MORPHEMIC derivation (MD)– widely used in non isolating languages, is a main sourse of new words. (f.e. in Slavonic languages it covers 83% of the new lexicon in the 60s of the XXc., while in Germanic, in Engl.f.e.63%, the same period; in isolating languages (Chinese, Vietnamese) it hardly can be found). Together with sufixal-prefixal derivation, MD embraces such types of compounding as blendings (the main sourse of neologisms in present-day Egl.), abbreviations of different kinds etc (magalog – ‘журнального формату каталог з рекламою товарів, що замовляється поштою’ (maga zine ’журнал’ + cata logue).

2) SEMANTIC derivation (SD) =words’ new meanings. As the meaning the word is a dynamic structure (Z.A.Charytonchik), in the course of time a word can gain its new meanings appeared in the same or different context. The phenomen of SD is of universal nature, it characterizes the lexicon of all existing languages. Analiticallanguages: the majority of words is much more polysemantic, than in sentactic ones. In Slavonic SD cover 8-10% of neologisms, in Engl. Its productivity differs by suggestion of diff.authors: 30.8% (Ginzburg R.S., Knidel S.S.A course in Modern Eng.Lexicology), 10% (Зацный Ю.А. Обогащение словарного запаса англ.языка).Conversion is a special case of SD, being much more productive in Eng. than in Ukr. The role of conversion in Eng. becomes larger & larger, according to J.Ayto: to air 1) «провітрювати»; the new mrening 2) ‘бути переданим по радіо та телебаченню’.

3) FORMING UP NON-STABLE PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS. The dictionaries of new lexicon include phraseological units, they are: 1) idioms, one of the words of which have unusual meaning; 2) non-ideomatic non-stable combinations of words, which are characterized by the frequent co-occurance of the word group (укр..генна інженерія, нейтронна бомба, рос.перочинный нож). Productivity – diff.in diff. languages. O.I. Isachenko points to one of the typological differences between Slavonic languages, consisting in different means of designation: in some of the languages MD is basic to produce new words, in others the process of creating non-stable expressions is active. In Russ./Ukr. In the sphere of stylistically neutral & official lexicon 2-member expressions are predominant, while in other Slavonic languages (Byeloruss./Polish/Chech/Slovenian) in such cases 1-member means of nomination are used:

4) BORROWINGS (calking, in peculiar), which are the markers of the process of languages’ intercourse. As a result of modeling words & expressions after foreign pattern new calques appear (wordforming, semantic, phraseological and syntactic). Calques penetrate into the lexicon of any language unnoticeably, being used carelessly, and are spreading very quickly afterwards. Cf. some of the innovations, appeared in Ukr. And borrowed from Eng. lately: артикулювати in the meaning ’формулювати, виражати думку, настрій’ together with its former ‘вимовляти звуки мовлення’; піратський ‘незаконний’: піратська копія, п. студія. languages the process of borrowing and semantic calking occur at intercourse of many languages at once = the tendency to internalization.

25. Typology of different layers of lexicon in contrasted languages.

All developed languages of the world have some other common layers of lexicon which came to being under the influence of different social, economic, historical and other extralingual factors. These layers form dialectal, professional, poetic, archaic, slang, international, specifically national, etc. lexicons.

Thus, the functioning of dialectal lexicons in any language is restricted to a definite historically destined territory (the Scottish dialect, London cockney or the Western Ukrainian dialects etc.).

There are some other stylistically distinct subclasses of lexicons in the contrasted languages, such as professional words, scientific, poetic,bookish words etc. Common in English and Ukrainian are the following professionalisms and terms: reaping (or harvesting) косовиця (жнива), threshing молотьба, sowing сівба, electrician електрик.

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